2 POSITIVISM — AUGUSTE COMTE Sane ARLENE Ss Comte’s Concept of Positivism Comte’s Positivistic sociology occupies an important place in the field of social thought. It is the combination of Montesquieu’s theme of determinism and Condorcet’s theme of necessary sequential stages in the progress of the human mind. In other words we must arrive the Comte’s central idea if we combine Montesquieu’s theme of determinism and Condorcet’s theme of necessary sequential stages in the progress of the human mind, Comte’s central idea is expressed in the following manner : Social phenomena are subject to a strict determinism which operates in the form of an inevitable evolution of human societies — an evolution which is itself governed by the progress of the human mind. Comte pays his tribute to Bossuet by saying, “It is surely to our great Bossuet that we shall ever be indebted for the first important attempt of the human mind to contemplate a sufficiently elevated perspective for the whole of the history of society.” Comte’s conception of sociology as “the rational co- ordination of the fundamental sequence of the various events of human history according to a single design,” was the fundamental theme of positivism. He was concemed with reducing the seemingly infinite variety of human societies in time and space to a fundamental sequence; the development of human race, and to a single design, the culmination in an ultimate state of human mind and of the human race. So we can see how the man who is regarded as the founder of positivism can also be described as the last disciple of Christian or theological provincialism,pOSITIVISM — AUGUSTE COMTE according to Comte, the s; society, it is because Prevail in all itivist method and from this he ol was indispensable in the eee ae “ie Po concluded that the Positivist method: a experimentation and the establishment of yan on observation, be extended to areas which are still entrusted i erin a method which claims to discover the ae Ee eels henomen: i erlying causes of P ‘a and to locate final causes in transcendent bein; According to Comte, then there is a way of thinking ier Ped which has universal validity-in politics as well as in sakonnny From this he concluded that since there is no free will is astronomy, there should be none in politics. lt is true that at the start of his career Comte began with the nation that there could not be two different philosophies in any society. But the developmerit of his thought compelled him to admit that plurality of philosophies has been the dominant fact almost continually throughout history. The goal of social development is to lead human thought to the unity for which it is destined and which can be realised only in two ways; by immediate fetishism or ultimate positivism. One either explains all things by assuming them to be animated by human consciousness or abandons every theological and metaphysical explanation and confines oneself to establishing laws. This raises a basic question. Why is there such a thing as history? If the final and perfected state of human intelligence is to be positivism, why has humanity had to pass through so many successive stages? Why has it been necessary to wait for so many, millennia for the appearance of one man-namely Ange Comte who has finally understood what the human mind shoul be? The answer is that positivism cannot be = spam philosophy, it can be only a latter-day philos oe Pineal! consists for man, in recognising the order which is ouES YT in admitting his inability to give a final explanation aa er this confining himself to deciphering the order, but to extemal order of nature requires time.16 SOCIOLOGICAL THOR Positivism consists in observing phenomena, in anatyg: them, in discovering the laws governing the telations am, Ysing But it is impossible. through observation and analysis to dig this external order all at once. Before Philosophising, naa first live. In the earliest phase of the human adventure jt A : possible, at best to explain a few simple phenomena in a scientiie manner. But a positivist philosophy a Philosophy of Observation, experimentation, analysis and determinism could not be based on these few phenomena. In the initial phase of history, man needed another Philosophy, which Comte at first calls theological and then fetishist. This philosophy enabled him to survive; it consoled him by describing the world as people with creatures like himself and, therefore, intelligible and benevolent. Fetishist or theological philosophy provides the human race with a temporary synthesis, both intellectually and morally valid, intellectually because it gives assurance of the intelligibility of the extemal world of nature, morally because it gives man confidence in himself and in his ability to overcome obstacles. In the Cours De Philosophic Positive, Comte states that history as a whole is essentially the development of the human mind. The crucial advances in the history of human mind could have been forseen by a superior intelligence because they answered a discernible need. Depending on the circumstances the cause that provokes disintegration of a social entity and the advent of the next Stage may be in politics, economics or in intelligence. If is not as if intelligence alone leads to a determined transformation of other social phenomena. Here we return to the central theme that human history must 3 Pameied - the history of a single people. If history were Pi eee oe rel ligion, then in Posting the unity of human mena religion, Bat panes to Point nothing less than a a easy to imagine pd is the history of intelligence, it is relati Bees jay ot thinking valid for all man. is fai zation that history is the history of a single Lene Sr i are Necessary, and that there is an inevita Cider jowards @ certain Boal, what then accounts for the stories of the different portions of humanity? ComtepositIVISM — AUGUSTE COMTE 0 solves this question of diversity with the elements of race, cf , Climate and political action. The theory that individuals are incapable of changing the course of history is part of a larger criticism of social reformers, utopians, or revolutionaries, those who think that either by designing a new society or by using violence on the old one the course of history can be reversed. The sociology which Comte offers is the study of the laws of historical development. This sociology claims to be historical because, according to Comte, it will be based on observation and comparison, hence on methods comparable with those of other sciences; but observation and comparison will somehow be controlled by the dominant theories of Comte’s thought, by his conception of statics to comprehend the structure of society and dynamics to comprehend the broad outlines of society. (@) HIS CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIOLOGY Auguste Comte has made wonderful contribution to sociology. Thereby he has earned a very good name and fame in the history of social thought. So he is regarded as the father of sociology. Auguste Comte is regarded to be the father of sociology. He organised and classified the social thought prevailing before his times. Comte gave birth not only to a specific methodology of studying knowledge but also analyzed the evolution of human thinking and its various stages. The principle evolved by Comte in the study of human thinking presumes gradual evolution and development in human thinking and is known as the law of three Stages of thinking. It is known as the law of three stages because, according to it, human thought has undergone three Separate stages in its evolution and development. The main importance of this principle is that it provides the basis of Sociological thinking. According to Auguste Comte, human thinking has passed through the following three stages. There has been an evolution in the human thinking so that each succeeding stage is superior ‘0 and more evolved than the preceding stage : q)y Theological or Fictitious stage,socio} ie LOGICAL THEORIES (2) Metaphysical or Abstract stage, @) Scientific or Positive stage. ; ; Auguste Comte has explained his classification of human thinking into various stages in following words; “... that each of our leading conceptions, each branch of our knowledge, passes successively through three different theoretical conditions the, Theological or fictitious, the metaphysical or abstract, and the scientific or positive.” In the following pages we shall discuss these stages briefly : (1) Theological or Fictitious condition. The first or primary stage of human thinking is theological or fictitious. This type of thinking is found among. the primitive races and sometimes the thinking of children is also at this level, At this level of thinking there is marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. The primitive man and children do not have the scientific outlook. Therefore, theological thinking is characterized by non-scientific or unscientific outlook. The main subject matter of theological thinking is natural events. The unusual and unintelligible events of nature tend man towards theological or fictitious interpretation of these events. Unable to discover the natural causes of the various happenings, the primitive man attributes them to imaginary or divine forces. The explanation of natural events in non-natural, diving or imaginary conditions is known as theological or fictitious thinking. For example, if we explain and understand the excess or deficiency of rain due to godly wrath, such a causal explanation would be in terms of theological or fictitious explanation. The theological thinking implies belief in an other-world wherein reside the divine forces which control the events in this world. Thus, it is clear that theological thinking implies a belief in divine and extra-terrestrial forces. Comte has classified the theological stage further into three loudstages. These are : (i) Fetishism, (i) Polytheism and (iii) Monotheism. ‘ a ee ee first and primary stage in theological some living 3 a 5 ‘etishism. Fetishism isa belief that tae pata a ras the non-living objects. This is 2 i so-called inanimae ice ee eee B it are informed by a livi objects are not dead and lifeless Pi! ne ing spirit. The examples of fetishistic thin!posiTIVISM — AUGUSTE COMTE 19 among rural people in They are, therefore, seen can be seen from the widespread belief India that some deity resides in trees, to engage in the worship of trees etc. (i) Polytheism. With the gradual devel thinking there occurred a change in the fei tf tee more evolved and developed form than that of Fetishism is knows as Polytheism, At this stage man had classified gods as well as natural and human forces, Each natural or human force had a presiding deity, Each god had some definite function and his scope and area of action was determined. (iif) Monotheism. The last and most developed form of theological thinking is seen manifested in monotheism, As the very term monotheism implies, at this level of human thinking a belief in one God had replaced the earlier belief in many gods. The monotheistic thinking symbolizes the victory of human intellect and reason over nonintellectual and irrational thinking. In monotheism it is believed that one God is Supreme and that he is responsible for the maintenance of order and system in the world. (2) Metaphysical or Abstract Stage. The metaphysical or abstract thinking marks the second stage in the evolution of human thinking, According to Comte, each successive stage is an improvement in human thinking the human problems also became more complex and intricate. The theological thinking was not adequate to tackle these efficiently. The appearance of conflicting and opposite forces in the world presented problems which could not be successfully tackled by monotheism. It was difficult to believe that the same God was responsible for primordeal creation as well as destruction. A personal and conerete God could not account for the simultaneous creation and annihilation. In order to resolve this intellectual puzzle or riddle metaphysical oe was invented. Under metaphysical thinking, belief in an abs et transcendental entity or absolute replaces the belief Oe s Concrete God. Under metaphysical thinking it 1s belien in the abstract power or force guides and determines the even! ae world. Metaphysical thinking discards belief in concrete ia ae (3) Scientific or Positive Stage. After saigeicoaeeet Metaphysical thinking comes the next stage known as. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIRS or positive stage. All metaphysical knowledge is based upon speculation and is at best inferential knowledge. There are no direct means to confirm the metaphysical knowledge. In the last analysis it is a matter of belief or temperament. The modem temper of man is such that it cannot remain satisfied with mere guesswork; it craves positive knowledge which can be scientifically confirmed. The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts, and these facts are gathered by observation and experience. The observation and classification of facts are the beginning of the scientific knowledge. From the facts we generalize and draw conclusions. These conclusions in tum are subjected to verification and once verified these become established laws, which can be relied upon in gathering and classifying the facts. The scientific thinking is thoroughly rational and in it there is no place for any belief of superstition. Auguste Comte is of the opinion that all human thinking before reaching the stage of positivism must have passed through the two earlier stages of theological and metaphysical thinking. Even in scientific thinking some traces of earlier types are to be usually found. Various Levels of Thinking Whereas Comte has tried to prove that there are various levels in human thinking, he has also tried to show that each of these is linked with a particular social organisation. According to Comte, social organisation in a particular society is correspondent to the stage of human thinking through which it happens to be Passing. It is only with change in the level of human thinking that there occurs a change in the social organization. The types of social organizations obtaining at the various levels of human thinking are discussed briefly below : theo je teoleical Stage and Social Organisation. In the os pic condition of human thinking, the social organization itis'dace ne type. The peculiarity of social organisation at a earn: at the social laws, Political laws etc were accept fea ly val id and nobody questioned their validity. The aseesiea ine rights of king was accepted. The king was epted to be the representative of God; and, therefore, the law made by him could not be Wrong. most societies in the theologicalPOSITIVISM — AUGUSTE COMTE 23 stage were ruled by monarchs and in some societies king was considered to be a god on earth. The discipline was quite rigorous in these societies. The primary reason for the rigorous and martinet discipline was that the laws made by the king were considered to be divine and any violation of these was considered tantamount to disobedience of God’s will. Therefore, no one easily dared to oppose and flaunt the laws of the society. Superstitions were ripe in these societies. (2) Metaphysical Stage and Social Organisation. Under metaphysical stage of human thinking, social organization was of quite different type from the social organization under the theological stage. These societies were guided by some abstract Principles. The political system also undergoes change and the power of the king becomes restricted. The constitutional system of government gets priority. The constitutional changes are gradual and there is a movement toward decentralisation of power leading ultimately to ushering in of democracy. Thus under metaphysical stage some power passes into the hands of people. (3) Scientific Stage and Social Organization. In the scientific stage the social and political laws are determined in a definite and well defined form. In these societies industry and technology predominates. The natural resources are harnessed for human good. The superstitions are mistrusted. Reason is demanded in every matter and the far of divine wrath no longer prevails. (i) HIS CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES From times immemorial thinkers have been trying to classify knowledge on one or the other basis. Early Greek thinkers had made a tripartite classification of knowledge. These were Physics, Ethics and Politics. Later on Macon made the classification on the basis of the faculties of man, namely, memory, imagination and reason. The science based upon memory is history and the science based upon imagination is poetry. The knowledge based upon reason is science of Physics, Chemistry etc. Comte classified knowledge on the basis of his observation of scientific or positive level of human thinking. The main aim of the classification of knowledge by Comte was to prepare the background and basis for the: study of Sociology, a science invented by him. On the basis of this principle he also determined the methodology of2 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES Sociology. Besides, this principle proved helpful in establishing the relation between Sociology and other sciences. Indeed by discovering some general principle it is possible to establish relationship among various sciences. Principle of Classification Each science is concerned with some definite event or subject- matter, and these constitute the subject of its study. The class of a science is determined by these events. Comte also based his classification on this fact. He christened his principle of classification as the law of Increasing Dependency. This principle has a special feature. In fact the facts pertaining to different sciences differ in complexity. Some facts are simple while other complex facts are dependent upon the simple. The simple facts are general and are present everywhere. It is on this basis that Comte has classified various branches of knowledge. The science that is based upon simple sciences. In order to study a complex science it is necessary to study a simple science. Thus, each science is in some measure dependent upon some other science and by itself forms a basis of some other science. Thus, a complex science is based upon some simple science and in tum forms a basis of a more complex science. On this basis Comte has presented a serial order of sciences. In this serial order the most simple science is placed on the lowest tier followed upward by more and more complex sciences. Thus, the most complex science is placed on the top. This arrangement is known as an arrangement of Increasing Dependency. The Serial Order of Classification In the arrangement made on the basis of the law of Increasing Dependency, Comte places Mathematics on the lowest wrung and the topmost wrung is occupied by Sociology. The hierarchy of this classification is as follows: (1). Mathematics, (2) Astronomy, (3) Physics, (4) Chemistry, (5) Biology and (6) Sociology or Social Physics.POSITIVISM — AUGUSTE COMTE 23 From this classification it becomes plain that Mathematics, according to Comte, is the simplest science while Sociology is the most complex science. Sociology is most dependent upon other sciences while Mathematics depends the least on other sciences. Brief Description of Important Sciences (1) Mathematics. According to Comte, Mathematics is the most simple as well as the most fundamental of all sciences. There are certain branches of Mathematics — Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry and Mechanics. All of these are simple sciences; these are not dependent upon other sciences. All of these are concerned with numbers. Arithmetic is the most simple of all the branches of mathematics. It is directly concerned with numbers. Arithmetic makes account of simple facts. Algebra also deals with numbers but indirectly. In order to establish the conclusions of either Arithmetic or Algebra we need not refer to any other sciences. The facts of these sciences are axiomatic, that is, these are self-evident. It must be emphasized at this point that all other sciences require the aid and help of mathematics for their development. Without the study of mathematics it is not possible to understand any other science. The third department of Mathematics is Geometry. Geometry too, is exposed with the help of figures and quantities. Geometry is also an independent discipline. Besides geometry, mechanics is also important. Mechanics is compounded of Geometry and Arithmetic, This means that mechanics is not dependent upon any other subject except geometry and arithmetic. It need to be made quite clear here that Mathematics is related to the scientific and positive stage of human thought’s development and has nothing to do with the theological and metaphysical stages of human thought’s development. (2) Astronomy. Having established Mathematics as a universal science fundamental and propadeutic to all other sciences; Auguste Comte classified other sciences according to Jaw and commonsense. First of all Comte bifurcated sciences24 SOCIOLOGICA; L THEORIES into two main divisions — Inorganic and Organi divided Inorganic into two further divisions; "aeieetie he Terrestrial. According to Comte Inorganic sciences ey and uniform than the Organic Sciences. On this basis Comte th Inorganic Sciences next to mathematics in order of definiteness and precision. Among the Inorganic Sciences, Astronomy is the most developed. It is a matter of common experience that the facts of solar system and planets have undergone much less change than the facts of other sciences. The celestial facts are more stable than the earthly. This is why in the hierarchy of sciences, as propounded by Comte, Astronomy finds a place next only to that of Mathematics. Astronomy is dependent upon Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry and Mechanics. By the compound use of mathematics and the law of gravitation the laws of Astronomy are made. The other sciences are more complex than Astronomy and are dependent upon it (3) Physics. Besides astronomical sciences, sciences called Terrestrial, among the terrestrial sciences main. These are Physics and Chemistry. The Terrestrial oF sciences are dependent upon both Mathematics and Astronomy Now it remains to be determined which of the two comes This fact is to be decided by the twin criteria of definiteness complexity. A more definite: science has precedence over the a definite science. Judged by this criteria Physics is plac oy Chemistry in the hierarchy of sciences. Compared with Chem Physics is more definite and certain. Physics is based 9g principles of Mathematics and Astronomy. The laws 80) us, tga system provide a basis for the study of Lee | clear that Physics is dependent upon Mathema ie re: a the organic and earth scien ese? is based partly on Maa Chemistry. The science °° js make Mathematics and partly on Physic& jt is © use of principles both ics and Physics. on this basis that Comte a ob Met 9 the scien? of Chemistry in the grow has placed at number tw = chemist nds upon Mathem, P of organic sciences. nee ae ue Physics and Muth and Physics, the reverse © (ry ics in no way make use of Chemis! there are other two are Sie gk aeposiTIVISM — AUGUSTE COMTE 25 Biology. It has alread been two se that is Inorganic ane Organi nnn ie oo are of succeed the Inorganic sciences, Comte has fhutien cident organic sciences into two parts, iyi the sciences. The Science of Biology comprises Botany and Zoology. In Biology we stud the struct 7 and animals. The physiology of plants and animals saetontn under Biology. Besides studying the anatomy and physiology of the plants and animals, a comparative study of the two is also made, Comte has placed Biology after Chemistry. The reason for this is that Biology makes use of the laws studied in Chemistry. The Chemical properties form the basis of the physiology and function of plants and animals, Chemistry is also dependent upon the laws of Mathematics, besides Astronomy and Physics. (© Sociology. According to Comte, the social organic science is Sociology. Sociology is a relatively new science. Sociology is dependent upon all the foregoing sciences. Being young it has not as yet attained the status of.a full-fledged definite Science. Sociology is a still growing and developing science. However, it is quite clear that Sociology is gradually moving towards the goal of a definite science. (Il) HIS VIEWS ON SOCIOLOGY Auguste Comte is universally regarded as the ieee Modern sociology. Indeed the very term pocioleey es Particular discipline of knowledge was coined re ead his “edit of nomenclature is due to him. Comte Pa eats Science as Social Physics intially. The naming o oie Social Physics was due to the belief of fugue oe soad methods and principles of this newly founded sien ee Coie *S precise and definite as those of pure sciences. -< sci a single Tduced the two term nomenculture of this ee eos » Namely, Sociology. In the hierarchy o! eh his neal Placed Sociology at the lowest rung. In Ce requires prot fattible Comte held that the study of Sociology hens Wledge of the five sciences preceding it, “4 that the 1aws 0 nomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology ian of these sciences Scciology were dependent upon the basic26 : as yet is a new science, it is passing through ; ee period. It has not as yet fully crossed the mag Jevel of human thinking and entered upon the scientific ang positive stage though the direction of its march is Perceptibly in this line. It would -no doubt one day become a full-fledged science. Comte has a very wide conception of Sociology, According to him, all other social sciences are subsumed under it. He believed in a unified integral study of all social sciences taken together. According to Auguste Comte the subject matter of Sociology is society. It studies the structure of the society and the laws governing its function. Sociology tries to discover those principles which help society to stay integrated and in order. Sociology does not try to discovear only the laws which govern a particular society but also tries to find out those principles which will help the integration and orderly growth of a society. It is highly important that the laws of Sociology should be scientific. In order to implement these principles we require scientific technique. The formulation of the principles of sociology requires that these should pass through the full circle of the making of scientific laws, namely, observation, experimentation, comparison and Classification. What needs to be emphasized is that in making of the principles of sociology use of full scientific technique is necessary, Divisions of Sociol very wide disci subject, Comte SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES logy. According to Comte, Sociology is @ line, In order to make an orderly study of the Were known divided Sociology into two divisions. The divisions Siaties as Social Statics and social Dynamics. The Social studies ‘ieee with the present structure of the society: lt In Social ee laws, tules and present condition of the society: are affectin the "tis observed as to how the present social laws structure, The ge It also does the evaluation of the eT Various social f, cial Statics also studies the correlation betweet Social Dyaiia cts. The other branch of Sociology is cote s. Under Social Dynamics we study as to ho the ee of social change are taking place. NG Quite separate. Tyo Of Social Statics and Social Dynamics Society. The Social Social Statics studies the structure of © al cs studies the social change and 5° |