1988_Ships and Shipwrecks of the Americas

George F Bass

A large infusion of slaves into Caribbean Costa Rica came from two Danish frigates, Christianus Quintus V and Fredericus Quartus IV, wrecked in 1710. Testimonies of witnesses presented in the Danish Court suggest that the two captains conspired from the beginning of their voyage to sail to Panama, instead of the intended destination of St. Thomas. Here they could sell the slaves at a higher price. Part of the voyage account noted that the Danish ships had an unintended stopover at the island of Santa Catalina, a strategic base for British pirates and Miskito Indian allies engaged in slave raids in Costa Rica. After this stopover, the captains amended their plans to head to Central America. It is a significant global narrative intertwining the history of Denmark, England, Costa Rica, and West Africa that contributes towards understanding another complex dimension of slave trade in the early eighteenth century. This study aims to present a historical context for events surrounding the voyage and introduce subsequent investigations of signature artifacts, especially bricks and manillas, from two shipwreck sites in Cahuita National Park.

During the world’s first archaeological excavation of a deep-sea shipwreck exclusively using robotic technology, conducted in 1990- 91 off the Tortugas Islands in the Straits of Florida, USA, Seahawk Deep Ocean Technology of Tampa, Florida, recovered 278 sherds from a crude form of cooking ware. Identified as colonoware, this non-Spanish ceramic tradition contrasts starkly with the Seville- dominated tin-glazed tablewares used by the ship’s crew and passengers. Research suggests that these wares are indigenous vessels produced by enslaved Africans in the circum-Caribbean region. In 1622 when the Tortugas ship, interpreted as the Portuguese-built and Spanish-operated 117-ton Buen Jesús y Nuestra Señora del Rosario, sank in 400m of water, Indian Native American labor had largely been replaced by an enslaved African workforce on the Spanish possessions of the Americas from sugar plantations to mines and households. The dominance of colonoware on the Buen Jesús, combined with this pottery’s co-existence on the Atocha from the same Seville-bound Tierra Firme fleet, suggests an exploitation of African slaves for food preparation and cooking. The Tortugas shipwreck seems to hold the first recorded archaeological evidence for maritime slavery in Spain’s renowned Americas fleets.

rii 'I I I I I A HISTORY BASED ON UNDEATER ARCHAEOLOGY ·--�-·_.: .. SHIPS AND SHIPWRECICS OF THE AMERICAS SHIPSND RECICS F E MERAS A History Based on Underwater Archaeolgy Edited by GEORGE E BASS With 376 illustrations) So in colour Thames and Hudson To John H. Baird) pioneer patron of nautical archaeoloy ) and friend Editor's Note We have tried to be consistent in the spelling of placenames, using those which appear most frequently in English, or those used by accepted authorities, although these may not have been the irst choices of individual authors in this book. Both English and metric measurements are given, which has led to minor problems. Archaeologists normally use the metric system in recording their sites, whether watercraft or not, but many of these watercraft were built to the English standard. \Xie have, therefore, for instance, given the metric measurements first in Chapter One, which concerns pre Columbian watercraft not built by people using feet and inches, whereas in Chapter Ten, discussing nineteenth-century steamboats, English measurements are listed irst. Approximate igures present a problem: a vessel 'around 45 ft long' becomes an overly precise 'around r 3.7 m' long when converted literally, and the measurement cited irst should be taken to be the more correct one. Title page r\ diver dismantles a loor timber from a sixteenth century Basque galleon found in Red Bay, Labrador. See Chapter Four. Any copy of this book issued by the publisher as a paperback is sold subject to the condition that it shall not by way of trade or otherwise be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including these words being imposed on a subsequent purchaser. © 1988 and 1996 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London First paperback edition 1996 All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing rom the publisher. ISBN 0-500-27892-x Printed and bound in Spain by Artes Graicas Toledo S.A. D.L.: T0-344-1996 Conens lntroduaion George F. Bass INSTITUTE OF XACTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY TEXAS A&vl CNIVERSITY pages 9-r2 CHAPTER ONE The Earlist atercrat: From Rats o VikingShps Margaret E. Leshikar INST!TCTE OF NACTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY pages IJ-}2 North America: Skin Boats and Canoes The Caribbean Islands 19 Middle America: Vessels of the Ma ya and Aztec 22 South America: From Rafts to Dugouts and Reed Boats 2 7 Pre-Columbian Visitors to the New World 30 Conclusion 32 CHAPTER TWO CHAPTER FOUR The byagf ojColumbus: The SearchorHis Shps Bsque Wha!eS in theew Hbr.· The RedBay ilrecks Roger C. Smith Robert Grenier DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESOCRCES MARINE ARCHAEOLOGY UJIT FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT CANADA � PARKS pages 33�44 Ships of Discovery 3 3 The First Voyage 3 8 The Second Voyage 3 8 The Fourth and Final Voyage 40 Vessels and Wreeks 69 The Organization of Voyages 79 Whaling Sr The Financial Rewards 8 3 CHAPTER THREE CHAPTER FIVE Shwrecks of the Explores resue Shps ofthe Spanish Main: The Iberian-meican Maitime Empires Donald H. I<eith INSTITUTE OF NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY TEXAS A&M CNIYERSITY Roger C. Smith Dl'ISION OF HISTORICAL RESOCRCES FLORIDA pages SJ�I06 Early Maps of the New World 45 English and Portuguese Seafarers 47 Spanish Exploration of the New World 47 Evidence from Shipwrecks 49 An Archaeological Benchmark: The Padre Islands Wrecks 50 Caribbean Survey 5 6 The Emerging Picture 64 The Cayo Nuevo Shipwreck 87 The 1 554 Fleet 89 The Bermuda Wrecks 89 Wrecks of Spanish Galleons 91 The Plate Fleets 95 The Quicksilver Transports 103 Portuguese Shipping 104 CHAPTER SIX The Thirteen Colonies: Englsh Settlers andSeafares J. Richard Stefy CHAPTER EIGHT Gunboats andashps ofthe merican Revolution John O. Sands INSTITUTE OF NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY COLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG FOUNDATION TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY VIRGINIA pages 107-128 pages 149-168 The First Settlements 107 The Settlers' Ships 107 Early Boatbuilding and Navigation The Colonies Take Root 116 Vessels of the Eighteenth Century The Final Years 128 In Search of Relics 15 0 Penobscot Privateer 1 5 5 Yorktown: A British Defeat on Land and Sea The Yorktown Warships 16 3 The Yorktown Merchant Ships 166 The Future of the Past 168 114 119 CHAPTER SEVEN 160 CHAPTER NINE Strugleora Continent: NavalBattles ofthe French andIndian ars The ar of1812: Battleforthe GreatLakes I.evin J. Crisman I.enneth A. Cassavoy and I.evin J. Crisman BASIN HARBOR MARITIME MUSEUM VERMONT CENTENNIAL COLLEGE, TORONTO BASIN HARBOR MARITIME MUSECM, VERMONT The European Colonization of North America Bateaux: Sturdy Transports on Rivers and Lakes King William's War 138 Queen Anne's War 139 King George's War 139 The French and Indian War 141 The Sloop Boscawen 142 The Machault 147 The Fall of New France 148 129 13 0 U.S. and British Naval Policies up to 1812 169 1812: An Indecisive Year 17 0 1813: Year of the Shipwrights 172 The Hamilton and Scourge 17 3 1814: The War Ends 178 The Kingston Fleet after 1814 I 8 2 Lake Champlain The Ticonderoga and the Eagle 182 Lake Huron 186 CHAPTER TEN Steamboas on Inlandaterways: PrimeMoves ofManfestDestiny Joe J. Simmons III INSTITUTE OF NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY CHAPTER TWELVE The Endfthe Age ofSail: MerchantShpping n he Nineteenth Century Paul Forsythe Johnston TEXAS A&M UNI'ERSITY PEABODY MlJSElJM, SALE;!, MASS. pages I89-206 pages 2p-250 The Birth of the Steamboat as a Commercial Venture 189 Steamboats on the Great Lakes r92 Western Steamboats r93 Diversiication of the Western Steamboat r98 The Decline of Steamboating 206 Trade Expands: The Century Begins 23 r The Heyday 234 The Rise of the Steamship 23 8 The Gold Rush Ship Niantic 242 Clipper Ships 243 Whaling and the Beginning of the End 245 Down-Easters: The Last American Square-Riggers 247 The End of the Century 249 CHAPTER ELEVEN The Civil hrta: Dawn ofan Age of Iron andEning Epilog George F. Bass and Captain W. F. Searle, USN (ret) pages 251-259 Gordon P. Watts, Jr PROGRA1I IN MAR!Tl\IE HISTORY AND CNDERWATER RESEARCH EAST CAROLINA lJNIVERSITY pages 207-230 The First Ironclads 207 Search for the Monitor 2 ro Ironclads Triumphant 214 Blockade Runners 2 r6 The Commerce Raiders 2 r9 The Gunboats 220 Submarines 225 Breadalbane 25 r The Beginning of Deep Search and Recovery Titanic 25 3 Deep Cargo Salvage 25 5 Andrea Doria 25 6 Shipwrecks and Society 25 6 25 2 y 260 BifetoMusumshlnstiutes 261 ourcesons 262 FurhrReaing26 3 ources ofIlstrations 267 Idex 269 �ICELAND 0 1400MJ 0 2000<1 & i � 1 _ Oq Vo �� ; . p ·� . A Ct 1 tN . t TortBenton xlTAlC (1912) � ;BERMUA . - ( VENEZUELA a�\� COLOMBlA > o / ABQ SAOR A z I .;a L A (Bi SACAM. 166 �� • �\, FALKLND IS. KPort Stanlr SNW SsAl( �StraitsofleMaire Introdu-ion George F. Bass l It is impossible to imagine a history of the Americas without ships and boats. The European discovery, exploration, colonization, commercial development and defense of this New World have all depended on ships. But European explorers, even as early as Leif Eiriks son, were not the irst to use water transport in the Americas. Columbus' ships were met by Caribbean water craft, and Europeans who followed the great admiral encountered specialized local craft - birchbark canoes, log dugouts, skin-covered kayaks and reed balsas as they pushed overland rom the Atlantic to the Pacific. The soldiers, priests, merchants and adventurers who both westernized and plundered much of South and Middle America arrived by sea. Columbus himself ounded the irst Christian town in the Americas, La Isabela in the Dominican Republic, in 1494. Cortes, Cabral, Balboa and Pizarro were among those who followed in his wake. Farther north, discoveries by other intrepid mariners led to the colonization of what today are the United States and Canada. Ponce de Leon discovered Florida in 1 5 1 3 by sea, and eleven years later Verrazzano made landfall in present-day North Carolina before sailing all the way up the coast to Maine. Basque seafarers entered still more northerly waters, not for what the land could yield, but for whales. The first permanent European settlers in North America reached Jamestown in the Susan Constant, Godspeed and Discovery. A replica of the Maylower, which not long ago duplicated the Pilgrims' transatlantic crossing, represents the interest we still have in the vessels that populated our early colonies. The replica of a Manila galleon, recently built in Mexico, demonstrates an equal interest in the ships that once brought goods from across the Pacific, goods that were transshipped overland to cargo holds waiting to ferry them on to Europe. Throughout the Americas, ships made possible the wretched trade in Arican slaves. When some of the North American colonies opted for independence from the Old World, a naval blockade of the York River was decisive to the outcome of the battle of Yorktown, which led to Cornwallis' inal surrender of British forces. Much later, when these colonies had become united states on the verge of becoming disunited, naval forces again played a crucial role in the outcome. In his book, The Civil War ( 1971 ), the eminent historian Bruce Catton writes: While the rival armies swayed back and forth over the landscape . . . a profound intangible was slowly beginning to tilt the balance against the Confederacy. On the ocean, in the coastal sounds, and up and down the inland rivers the great force of sea power was making itself felt. By itself it could never decide the issue of the war; taken in conjunction with the work of the Federal armies, it would ultimately be decisive. In no single area of the war was the overwhelming advantage possessed by the Federal government so ruinous to Southern hopes. Even today, the most powerful military deterrent in the Americas probably lies in the fleet of Trident submarines gliding silently beneath the waves. Even today, immigrants disembark onto American shores from ships and boats. Even today, bulk cargoes, from oil to the automobiles that devour it, reach our coasts by sea. More than a dozen years ago, I edited A History of Sefaring Based on Underwater Archaeology, a book intended to combine and supplement existing information with the latest results of the new ield of nautical archaeology. I had not anticipated the public interest that led, eventually, to the book's publication in six languages. That original volume emphasized mostly earlier ships and boats, watercraft about which we would have had few details without archaeology. Only the last two of twelve chapters dealt with watercraft in the Americas. There were two reasons for this. The irst was that nautical archaeology was pioneered in and matured in the Mediterranean and in Northern Europe. The second was that I believed archaeology had far more to offer to, say, the study of classical or Viking ships than to the study of 1o Introduction ships of the modern era. What new information could shipwreck archaeology offer us about much more recent vessels? The answer came to me several years ago when I was asked to give a paper on 'Shipwreck Archaeology in the Eastern United States' at a published symposium organized by Louisiana State University. My own experience as an underwater archaeologist had been mostly with ancient Mediterranean shipwrecks. Thus, I was surprised to learn that we know more about the construction of Greek and Roman ships than we do of relatively modern Spanish and Portuguese ships of exploration. I found how vividly careful excavation can bring to life the crews and passengers of even more recent vessels. I was heartened to learn that a small but growing number of nautical archaeologists are conducting excavations in the New World to the same exacting standards as those established earlier in Europe. Why nautical archaeology in the Americas has lagged behind that in Europe is not easily explained. Perhaps it is because New World archaeologists traditionally have been most interested in pre-Columbian sites and cultures. Thus, it went almost unnoticed by many of them that historic shipwrecks were being looted by treasure-hunters who would have been prohibited by law from bulldozing Indian mounds for pottery or dismantling historic dwellings for souvenirs they might sell for personal gain. At last, largely through the work of the authors of this book, nautical archaeology in the Americas has a bright future, a future to beneit historians, other archaeologists and, most importantly, the general public. Archaeologists trained on Mediterranean shipwrecks, in fact, are playing a major role in starting scholarly underwater archaeology in the New World. I had a modest part in beginning the irst scientific excavations of both American and British shipwrecks from our War of Independence. David Switzer, director of the Dfence excavation in Maine, was trained on a Late Roman wreck in Turkey. John Broadwater, now excavating one of Cornwallis' ships in the York River, Virginia, earlier dived on wrecks in Turkey, as well as in North Carolina and Truk. The irst hull Richard Stefy ever restored was that of a classical Greek ship in Cyprus. Donald Keith had excavated wrecks in the Mediterranean before beginning the irst full-scale, thorough excavation ever conducted of a ship of the exploration period in the Caribbean. Their work is described in the following pages. The chapters here, as in the original History of Seafaring, are all written by scholars who have studied firsthand ships and shipwrecks of the periods they cover. By good fortune, all are friends. I have personally explored with them some of the sites they describe, and in other cases they have worked on my underwater projects. Margaret Leshikar describes indigenous watercraft from Peru to the northwest of North America, illustrated by evidence ranging from Maya reliefs to descriptions and drawings of early explorers in the New World; she has studied surviving Aztec dugouts, and has recorded in detail present methods of building dugouts in the Caribbean. Roger Smith, who is conducting a search for two of Columbus' ships abandoned off the north coast of Jamaica, presents evidence for locations of other Columbus shipwrecks, and what might be learned from them to supplement existing information from con temporaneous models and paintings. Donald Keith moves the story forward by writing on the ships of exploration that followed immediately after Columbus, and the knowledge gleaned from the wrecks of such ships he has examined off the Bahamas, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and Mexico. Hulls of Iberian ships locked in the frozen north are better preserved than those of ships sunk in the shipworm-infested Caribbean, and these are described by Robert Grenier, director of the excavation of a remarkable Basque whaler in Labrador. Roger Smith then combines both ield and archival research to present a vivid picture of the treasure-laden Spanish galleons that carried the riches of the Americas back to Europe. Shipping in the English colonies was involved w·ith the transport of more mundane goods and with people. J. Richard Stefy describes modern replicas of the famed Mylower, Susan Constant, Godspeed and Discovery men tioned above, and provides construction details from shipwrecks of both coastal and transoceanic vessels of the period. Kevin Crisman, who pioneered the excavation and study of wrecks in the lakes of the northern United States, draws on an abundance of well-preserved ships to describe the role of watercraft in the westward movement of Europeans during the French and Indian War. John Sands, who is engaged in current excavations of British ships lost by General Cornwallis in the York River, Virginia, describes these ships in their historical context, and illustrates other ships from the War of Independence, including the American brig Dfence, recently excavated in Maine, and the famous Philadelphia, raised from Lake Champlain. Perhaps the most perfectly preserved early ships ever found in the Americas are those of the Hamilton and Scourge, sitting upright at a depth of 300 ft (90 m) on the bed of Lake Ontario in Canadian waters. Even their painted igureheads have survived in excellent condition since the War of 181 2, as Kenneth Cassavoy and Kevin Crisman show. Joe Simmons, in writing on the steamboats that carried bulk cargoes and passengers throughout North America, concentrates on the wreck of the Bertrand, a stern-wheeler sunk in the Missouri River in 186 5; its excavation yielded 140 tons of mid-nineteenth century artifacts, more than a million items! Gordon Watts combines space-age technology and Civil War history in discussing his dives from a special submarine on the famed ironclad Monitor, 200 ft (60 m) below the stormy waters of Cape Hatteras. He relates his own experiences on blockade runners sunk off the same North Carolina ♦ ) M B I A 12 Introduction coast, but ranges from Texas to Mississippi in describing other wrecks from the war between the states. Paul Johnston describes the great sailing vessels that made America a commercial power in the nineteenth century, from eastern whalers and Clipper ships to the wrecks of Gold Rush ships in California. Finally, I found myself so dependent on the vast knowledge of marine salvage stored by Captain W. F. Searle, USN (ret), who was Director of Ocean Engineering, Supervisor of Salvage, and Supervisor of Diving for the United States Navy between 1964 and 1969, that I prevailed upon him to write with me a chapter about the future of underwater archaeology in the Americas. Many of the authors share a common training. Smith, Crisman, Cassavoy and Simmons received their MA degrees in nautical archaeology at Texas A&M Uni versity, where Steffy and I were among their professors, and where Smith and Keith are now completing doctorates. Leshikar, Sands, Watts and Johnston have assisted field projects of the Institute of Nautical Archaeology, now based at Texas A&M, where Grenier visits for consultations with Stefy. Searle, who had lent Navy support to some of my own early eforts in underwater technology, was a ounding director of the Institute, and the driving force behind the Institute's irst New World project the excavation of the Dfence. The family of nautical archaeologists remains small. Nautical history, however, is not simply for scholars. We cannot and should not deny the simple romantic appeal of experiencing the past. As I wrote some of this introduction I was sailing through the Virgin Islands, struck by the awesome isolation of the landfalls that Columbus saw on his second voyage. One night there was a rough crossing. Most of us did not sleep. A few were seasick. Yet we were stabilized and air-conditioned, guests on the 170-ft motor yacht Michaela Rose. I wondered idly what it was like for the crews of early caravels and naos in these Caribbean waters. Later, from my porthole, I could see a future archaeological site the rusting hulk of Sarah, on her side, half above and half below the surface of the harbor of Aquilla in the British West Indies. Civilization now is near at hand. But what was it like to be wrecked centuries ago? Within sight of Sarah is a desert island - a few palm trees in the midst of white sand a cartoon island out of the pages of New Yorker or Punch. One morning, sitting on the sand while my companions swam and dived, I tried to imagine the loneliness of being marooned. Even there my imagination was not vivid enough. It was not until I had edited almost the entire manuscript and written the above words that, at last, the signiicance of seafaring to almost all Americans of European, African or Asian descent really struck home. Going through old family papers for the first time, I discovered that my great-great-grandfather, the Reverend William Jessup Armstrong, drowned in November 1846 when the side-wheel steamer Atlantic was wrecked in Long Island Sound with the loss of forty-two souls. And that my great-great-great-great-grandmother, Nancy Alexander Wauchope, gave birth to a son on 15 December 1727 during a three-month crossing from Ireland to Pennsylvania. Having made a December crossing of the North Atlantic on the Queen May, I shudder to imagine that experience! That ships of almost every century covered in this book afected my forebears later came to light when I found that the irst European in my family to reach the New World, Captain Nathaniel Basse, arrived by ship at Jamestown on 27 April 1619. And when I learned that some of my ancestors on that paternal side were Algonkian-speaking Indians, I realized that even native American canoes and dugouts must have played a role in my distant past. I had been a nautical archaeologist for more than a quarter of a century, but it was through these dry-land discoveries that the importance of watercraft to my life, and to the lives of virtually all Americans, finally made an emotional impact. Those who want to understand the Americas and Americans cannot distance themselves from the ships and· boats described in the following pages. They have touched us all. Editor's Note for the Paperback Edition Since this book was first published, New World nautical archaeology has thrived, in part because of·our authors. The first three received doctorates from Texas A&M University: Margaret Leshikar-Denton then became chief archaeologist of the Cayman Islands and published The Wreck of the Ten Sails (Cayman Islands National Archive and Cayman Free Press, 1994); Roger Smith excavated the sixteenth-century Emanuel Point wreck in Florida and published Vanguard of Empire (Oxford University Press, 1993); and Donald Keith, with Joe J. Simmons, founded Ships of Discovery and Exploration, a research group at the Corpus Christi Museum in Texas. Robert Grenier's landmark publication of Red Bay is nearing completion. Emeritus professor J. Richard Stefy published Wooden Ship Buildin!, and the Interpretation ofShipwrecks (Texas A&M University Press, 1994). Kevin Crisman, now on the Texas A&M faculty, has completed study of the Jefferson, the Boscawan, a nineteenth-century horse-powered ferry, and numerous other wrecks in the northern lakes. Gordon Watts has excavated the six teenth-century V/estern Ledge Reef wreck of Bermuda, and assisted a French team excavating the C.S.S. Alabama near Cherbourg. Paul Johnston, now Curator of Trans portation at the Smithsonian Institution, has investigated the Indiana, mentioned by Simmons in his chapter, and ound the long-sought American yacht Cleopatra's Barge of Hawaii. George F. Bass and W. F. Searle What does the future hold fo r ship and boat archaeology in the Americas? Allow two veteran divers - one with a background in nautical archaeology and the other in navy and commercial salvage and wreck clearance - to dose this book by speculating on the answer. There is no question that there are and will be many sites for future study. 'Statistics for the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', states Willard Bascom in Deep Water, Ancient Ships, 'indicate that approximately 40 percent of ,di wooden sailing ships ended their careers by running onto reefs, rocks, or beaches made of rock, sand, or coral.' Another 10 ro .0 percent, Bascom estimates, sank ofshore in deeper water. Llyd's List demonstrates that losses at sea remain a daily occurrence. One can add to this the myriad small craft that sink in ponds, lakes and rivers across the continents on any given date. Although most shipwrecks studied in the near uture will be in relatively shallow water, deeper wrecks are in many instances better preserved. Largely as a by-product of military research and development, there already exist the means to locate and inspect even the deepest shipwrecks or, as in the case of the Breadalbane, those under Arctic ice. Breadalbane In 1846 a British expedition led by Sir John Franklin, looking for the elusive Northwest Passage between the Atlantic and Paciic Oceans, was trapped by Arctic ice while aboard the ships Erebus and Terror. When no news had arrived from the explorers by 1847, a series of search teams were dispatched to ind the lost men. One team sailed in r 8 5 3 aboard the ten-year-old British bark Breada!bane. But Breadalbane survived the cruel Arctic no better than the she sought. She was sunk by ice fortunately without loss of life. Breadalbane's crew did not know that they were already too late to rescue Franklin and his men. An 18 5 9 rescue team would ind on King William Island skeletons and a written account of the last days of the original, ill-fated expedition; their ships crushed the ice, and their leader and two dozen fellow crewmen already dead, the remaining men had abandoned the ships on . April I 848. The account stopped only three days later. An Eskimo witness described how the starving men had fallen and died as they walked. In 1984 archaeologists discovered some of the sailors in frozen, shallow graves. More than a century after the Breadafbane went down, a team of modern explorers set o_ut to locate her remains. The problems associated with inding a shipwreck under 6 ft ( r .8 m) of ice and 340 ft m) of water were great, but the search, directed by Canadian physician and underwater explorer Joe Macinnis, was successul. In 1980 a Klein Associates sonar, just as on the Hamilton in Lake Ontario several years earlier Chapter Nine), printed out the ghostly silhouette of a ship still upright on the seabed, her masts standing tall. Sonar detects wrecks by emitting sound waves and measuring with extreme accuracy the length of time it takes these sound waves to bounce back from the sea or lake bed to the sonar unit. Thus if some obstacle rests on or protrudes from the sea or lake bottom, the sound waves return rom it sooner than rom the bottom beyond, and this time differential is recorded on a paper chart. Sometimes the obstructions are simply rock outcrops, but as sonar becomes increasingly reined these can be distinguished on the paper rom the recognizable shadows of sunken ships such as the Breada!bane. Three years after Breadalbane was found, Maclnnis directed a large team, supported by airplanes and a snow tractor, which cut through the Arctic ice on which were camped and lowered diver Doug Osborne to explore the remarkably preserved ship. Osborne rode in a recent invention, the WASP, kind of one-person, surface powered submersible with arms. The team cut another hole, through which yet another invention, a Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV), was lowered to enable National uovY,uu• m• photographer Emory Kristof to record both Osborne's work and the wreck. The results show how well isolated Arctic sea water, free of marine borers, can preserve a wooden for more than a century. 252 pilo, Frozen Tombs in the Arctic r, 2 Petty Oficer John Torrington, whose deep-rozen corpse (below right) lies buried in the permafrost of northern Canada's Bcechey Island, was a member of the ill••ated British expedition trying to discover a Northwest Passage in 1846. The Breada!bane, sent in search of the lost explorers in 185 3, herself was sunk by the ice. A team led by Joe Maclnnis tracked down the wreck in 1980 and three years later sent diver Doug Osborne (6ght) to inspect the hull 340 ft (100 m) down in a kind of one-person submersible, the WASP. But the technology used on Breada!bane would nor have existed, or been so reined, had it not been for earlier work on more recent and equally tragic catastrophes nor on the sea, but under it and in rhe sky. The Beginning of Deep Search and Recovery Comet. On rn January 1954 a British Comet jet liner, with twenty-nine passengers and a crew of six, broke apart and dropped from the sky near the Italian island of Elba. The steps taken to discover the cause of the crash were similar to those used today by marine archaeologists (and were used more recently, in 1986, to explain what went wrong with the space shuttle Challenger after it fell into the Atlantic Ocean). It was necessary to locate the wreck, raise the pieces, and study them. \:'ithin days of the Comet's loss, British naval vessels were on the scene, searching in 400 ft ( 120 m) of water. Witnesses to the crash, and reports both rom the aircraft which spotted floating wreckage and rom Italian sailors who picked up the only recovered bodies, narrowed the search ield to an area of about 100 square miles. As with• the Breadalbane, the first contact with the wreck was by sonar, or, as it is called in Great Britain, ASDIC. ln those days, however, underwater television or manned observation capsules used for identifying sonar contacts were simply lowered, or 'dunked', from surface vessels. The only means of moving them through any kind of search pattern was to alter the position of the surface vessel by shortening or lengthening the mooring cables, or otherwise moving her about. The method was ineficient impossible in high seas but in this case, it was successful. The underwater television showed the sonar contact to be the Comet. Once located, the scattered pieces of the Comet were recovered, some by a grab directed rom the sea floor by an observer in a watertight capsule, but many trawled up in nets. The urgency of the operation was heightened when, on 8 April of the same year, a second Comet disappeared over the Mediterranean under similar circumstances. In seven months about 70 percent of the irst Comet had been recovered. Painstaking recon struction pointed to the cause of the disaster •· metal fatigue and allowed successful changes in the Comet's design. No attempt was made to recover the second Comet, which sank in water more than half-a-mile deep. 'Thresher'. How far search and recovery techniques advanced in less than a decade was demonstrated by the search for the USS Thresher, a 278-ft (85-m) nuclear propelled attack submarine, lost with her crew of 129 men on rn April 1963. The submarine was making a test dive about 200 miles off the coast of New England when her surface escort, the Submarine Rescue Ship USS Sqlark, heard over her underwater, sonar-like communications system sounds of what may have been an attempt to surace, a few garbled words and then silence. Although there was no chance of finding the submarine's crew alive in water r½ miles deep, a search was immediately initiated. A leet that grew to three dozen ships, some employing sonar and underwater cameras, was ultimately successful. This time, however, a new dimension was added. The search was not conducted exclusively from surface vessels. The Navy employed its famous research bathyscaphe Triesh, which three years earlier had dived to the deepest part of any sea, almost 7 miles down. In late June, at a depth of 8,4co ft (2,600 m), and with Lieutenant Epilog 25 3 (now Rear Admiral) Brad Mooney at the controls, Trieste II's crew spotted bits and pieces of what seemed to belong to the Thresher. In subsequent dives which continued through August, Trieste II not only photographed structural parts of the lost submarine, but, with an externally mounted mechanical arm, retrieved among other things several pieces of Thresher's copper nickel piping. These dives led to confident conclusions as to the systems which failed and caused the submarine to be lost, and consequently led to corrective design and shipbuild ing techniques. presenting a dilemma to the controllers on the surface. In short order the decision was made to carefully lift the entire entanglement� CUR V, parachute and bomb. The three were successfully raised to some 60 ft (18 m) below the deck of the lifting platform (Submarine Rescue Ship USS Petre), at which point divers entered the water and attached a heavy lifting strap directly to the bomb, which was hoisted onto the ship's afterdeck. This successful operation had demonstrated for the irst time the employment of both manned submersibles and unmanned vehicles in deep ocean recovery. H -bomb. On 17 January 1966 a mid-air collision between an American strategic bomber and its refuelling tanker caused four unarmed hydrogen bombs to be dropped near Palomares, Spain. Three of the bombs impacted on land and self-destructed in non-nuclear explosions. The only remaining bomb, with its parachute intact, fell well out to sea where it promptly sank in deep water. Even though great strides had recently been made in deep ocean search and recovery techniques, the problems presented by the missing H-bomb severely tested these new capabilities. Many of the advances were the result of study by the post-Thresher Navy-sponsored Deep Submergence Sys tems Review Group. There were other catalysts, however, than the loss of the Thresher. Methods of retrieving tested weapons from the sea floor, as well as mine countermeasures technology after the Korean War, led to the development of underwater robotic equipment systems which could swim down, search out objects on the sea floor and, as necessary, work on them. By the mid196os the result of this was the Navy's CURV (Cable controlled Underwater Research Vehicle), the irst successful, work-oriented ROV (Remote Operated Vehicle). CURV was the key to the successful manipulation which led to the recovery of the H-bomb. A pair of manned research submersibles, Aluminaut and Alvin, both launched after the Thresher tragedy and both capable of diving to greater than 6,000 ft (1,800 m), were instrumental in the search and identiication phases, and were critically involved in the recovery phase. Once Alvin had located the bomb, Aluminaut, with her longer battery life, drew baby-sitting duty and kept the bomb in view while Alvin was readied on the surface for a recovery attempt. Alvin's job was to attach lines to the bomb's parachute harness by means of grapnels. But this lifting attempt failed when the bomb, only a short distance off the bottom, broke free and tumbled farther down the submarine canyon in which it had been found. After several stressful days of renewed searching, the errant bomb was relocated at 2,850 ft (870 m). This was frighteningly near the maximum depth to which CURV was limited, but CURV was now given the assignment of rigging the lift lines to the bomb's parachute harness. CURV successfully attached two lift lines. Then, while maneuvering to attach a third line, its propulsion propellers became entangled in the parachute nylon, 'Scorpion'. When another nuclear attack submarine, Scorpion, was reported missing in 1968, somewhere between the Azores and her destination in Norfolk, Virginia, the U.S. Navy was presented with a far greater challenge. The search area was enormous. The distance between the Azores and Norfolk is near!y 2,5oo miles, the depth of water sometimes 4 miles. Both submarines and a fleet of surface vessels were brought into the task which lasted rom May through October and involved thousands of men. Eventually the Navy's Oceanographic Research Ship USNS Mizar, which had photographed Thresher ive years earlier, discovered the Scorpion nearly 2 miles deep and about 400 miles from the Azores. The following year Trieste II dived with submarine designer/naval architect Captain Harry Jackson on board to inspect the Scorpion and evaluate, or at least postulate, the manner in which she was damaged and the reason for her loss. This basic lesson must not be lost on those who explore shipwrecks from submersibles. Just as physicians are called to observe patients for medical diagnoses, those observing historic shipwrecks from submersibles should include people trained to evaluate hull damage, state of preservation and other pertinent factors. Titanic The search and survey techniques developed by the Navy in the 1960s and afterward eventually made possible the discovery and inspection of the most famous shipwreck of modern times. Everyone knows the story of the 'unsinkable' Titanic, the largest and most modern ship of her day: How she sank on her maiden voyage in April 1912 after striking an iceberg in calm seas. How radioed pleas for help were unheeded by other ships in the vicinity. How 1,522 lives were lost. As children we learned of cowardice and bravery, of insufficient lifeboats, of dying cries in the night. Now everyone knows how a joint project from the United States and France, under Dr Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and Jean-Louis Michel of the Institut Frarn;ais de Recherches pour !'Exploitation des Mers, located the ship on I September 1985. A video cassette of the expedition became the largest selling television documentary in history, showing the interest the public has in historic shipwrecks. Final Resting Place of the 'Titanic' The largest and most modern ship of her day, the Titanic struck an iceberg and sank on her maiden voyage in April 1912, 350 miles southwest of Newfoundland. Now, through a triumph of present-day underwater technology, the liner has been located, mapped and explored 2½ miles deep on the ocean loor. But her discovery has created a controversy over salvage, brought to a head in July 1987 when a separate expedition raised more than 300 items from the shattered ship. (above lft) The U.S. research submersible Alvin, rebuilt with a strengthened hull to dive to 13,ooo ft (4,000 m), being launched from the support ship Atlantis I in 1986, as part of the research expedition led by Robert Ballard of the Wood's Hole Oceanographic Institution. 4 ( center lft) This ghost!y image one of thousands of photographs taken of the wreck - records the edge of the Titanic's bow on the starboard side, with two bollards and railing visible. A 3-ft (1-m) long ish swims over the deck. 5 (below) Proile of the Titanic. It now appears that when she sank on the night of Sunday 14 April, her hull broke in two, the stern section pivoting round in the opposite direction from the bow. The two halves today lie 1970 ft (Goo m) apart on the loor if the Atlantic. ----- Epilog Although not in classical domestic American waters she lies 3 5 o miles southeast of Newfoundland - Titanic was nearing North America when she sank, and her discovery is included here as an example of the use of modern technology in inding an historic wreck so far at sea, 21 miles down on a mountainous seabed, with conflicting contemporary reports of her last position! The wreck was spotted by video cameras that are part of Angus, an unmanned search system that also carried sonar and other electronic equipment down to just above the ocean loor. The following year, during a second expedition, Ballard and his colleagues inspected and photographed the wreck, inside and out, by means of Alvin, now rebuilt with a strengthened hull to dive to 13,ooo ft (4,000 m), and Jason Jr, a robot tethered to Alvin that swam down stairwells to photograph the interior of the rusting giant. Although no ship designers or naval architects were involved in these submarine inspections of the Titanic, the explorers decided that the great vessel had not been sunk, as believed, by a long gash inflicted by the iceberg. It seemed to them, instead, that the ship's riveted plates had simply separated under the blow. More surprising to them was the extensive damage caused by pressure on the hull as it sank. The stern, torn away and turned completely around, lay 600 ft (180 m) from the rest of the ship. All wood had disappeared, although ceramic, glass and other artifacts appeared like new in expedition photographs. Deep Cargo Salvage When Searle was a midshipman at Annapolis in the 1940s, the 'deep ocean' commenced at the 100 fathom line, or 600 ft (180 m), leading to the phrase to 'deep six' materials such as code books, crypto wheels and the like, which meant jettisoning them deeper than 1oo fathoms, where they were beyond the limits of location and retrieval. It was only after the successful search for and recovery of the H-bomb of Palomares that the jettisoning limits were redeined. But will this redefinition affect marine archaeology in the near future? Now that the deepest and most isolated wrecks can be located and visited systems under development will soon allow the U.S. Navy to record 98 percent of the ocean bottom - what are the possibilities of actual excavation at depths inaccessible only a generation ago? It is true that salvage operations have been conducted at appreciable depths for some time. Millions-of-dollars worth of gold and silver was salvaged in 1932-3 5 from the wreck of the Eypt, sunk 400 ft (122 m) deep in the Bay of Biscay in 1922, and additional millions in gold bars were recovered in 1941 from the Niagara, sunk at a similar depth off New Zealand in 1940. In both cases an observer, dangling in a metal chamber over the wreck, directed by telephone the movements of a grab sent down from the surace. And in both cases the salvors simply blasted their way through the ships with explosives. Neither technique could be employed in careful archaeological excavation. 25 5 It was the development of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) that revolutionized under water archaeology around the world in the middle of the twentieth century, for it gave divers and archaeologists, for the first time, the mobility to do deicate work. Excavations conducted with SCUBA, however, are limited to depths seldom exceeding about 1 5 o ft (46 m). There are two reasons for this. Firstly, nitrogen, which constitutes 80 percent of the air we breathe, becomes narcotic under pressure; at depths much greater than 1 5 o ft, the diver can become confused and disoriented, incapable of careful excavation or even safe diving. Secondly, the deeper one dives and the longer one stays at depth, the greater the length of time it takes to return to the surface without risking the bends, the painful and sometimes fatal illness caused by the formation of bubbles in the bloodstre;im and body tissues; for the deeper one dives, the greater the pressure of the air one breathes to prevent being crushed by the increasing weight, or pressure, of the water surrounding the diver. The diver avoids the bends by rising slowly to the surface, usually in stages, pausing for certain lengths of time at various depths determined by how deep he or she has been and how long the dive. At each pause, or stage, the diver breathes off more of the pressurized nitrogen in his system. This is called decompression. A twenty-minute dive at 1 5 o ft (46 m), for example, calls for more than eleven minutes of decompression. A one-hour dive at the same depth, however, calls for nearly two hours of decompression, which is totally impractical in any extended diving operation, especially since archaeological teams, for safety, usually decompress much more than is required, often using pure oxygen to hasten the removal of nitrogen from their bodies. There are methods of overcoming both nitrogen narcosis and the impracticality of inordinately long decompression following each dive. If a diver breathes something other than air, most commonly heliox (a mixture of helium and oxygen rather than the normal nitrogen and oxygen of air), nitrogen narcosis is avoided. Avoiding intolerable decompression periods after ex tremely long, deep dives, however, is more complex and is dependent on a technique known as saturation diving. As described above, the deeper one dives and the longer one stays at depth, the more pressurized gas (whether air or heliox) one absorbs into the system, thus necessitating decompression periods of ever-increasing lengths. At some point, however, the diver's body has absorbed all the pressurized gas it can hold. After this saturation point, the length of decompression is not increased, regardless of how much longer the diver stays at depth. Saturation diving allows divers to live under pressure for days or weeks at a time. Normally they live in pressurized metal chambers aboard surace vessels, and are lowered to the seabed in pressurized capsules from which they can exit and work for several hours. At the end 256 Epilog of their work period, they re-enter the capsule, seal its hatch, and are raised back to the surace where the capsule is mated with the deck chamber in which they live. After days or weeks or even months the amount of decompression will be great several days but once the diver has become saturated his decompression penalty will not increase. This was the method used in 1981 to salvage £45 million in Soviet gold bullion from the HMS Edinburgh, sunk during World War II in 800 ft (250 m) of water 170 miles north of Murmansk. Saturation divers may, alternatively, live on the seabed in an underwater habitat, but when they do surface they must still be raised in a pressurized capsule and locked into a deck chamber for the proper period of decompression. Both approaches to saturation diving have been used on another famous shipwreck. Andrea Doria At 11: 10 pm on 25 July 1956, 50 miles south of Nantucket Island, the 697-ft (212-m) Andrea Doria, pride of Italy's passenger fleet, collided with the Swedish liner Stockholm and settled on her starboard side in 240 ft (73 m) of water. Thirty-four people were killed by the collision, but the ship did not stop claiming victims. Because she can be reached by air diving, but only at great risk, she remains especially dangerous. Immediately following the disaster, divers descended at least to the ship's uppermost structure, 165 ft (50 m) deep, to obtain 'front page' or 'cover' photographs, and these dives were followed by more-or-less 'official investigation dives', during the training for which one diver died while using an unfamiliar mixed-gas breathing system. In the intervening years since the Doria went down there have been numerous diving expeditions to her, both surface-based air dives and at least three expeditions using saturation techniques. Dive-shop gossip has it that freelance divers have hacksawed away a statue of Admiral Doria - leaving the feet welded to the pedestal. (The statue is variously reported to be in a bar room in Norfolk, in a museum in Florida, or elsewhere.) Sport divers, additionally, visited the wreck both for the thrill and for souvenirs. At least two died, and Bass knows a third who was paralyzed by the bends from her 'ultimate dive'. Clearly, saturation dives were necessary for any reasonably long visits to the ship. Alan Krasberg of Boston was the irst when he used a two-man, towable, winch-itself-down underwater habitat in a 1968 'salvage' attempt. 'The habitat', Krasberg wrote to Searle in July 1987, 'was intended to be attached via a winch and wire rope to a locked toggle through a porthole near the promenade deck thru-way. Diver gas was carried on board.' Luck was against Krasberg. Day after day high seas prevented his team from placing the toggle, and a diver/photographer for a news magazine almost died from what must have been an air embolism, requiring immediate treatment in the expedition's combination habitat-decompression chamber. 'The next day the sea was flat calm at last', Krasberg continued, 'but we were now on our way back to shore with the man in the chamber.' 'All I have to show for it', he added by telephone, 'is half of one porthole and a sign from the ship that says "Men's Room".' Nearly two decades later, saturation diving of the type used in offshore oil work allowed a team led by the late Peter Gimbel and his wife Elga Anderson to actually explore the Doria's interior. Gimbel had dived on the wreck the day after she went down, when he was only twenty-eight years old, not knowing that his curiosity about the tragedy would become an obsession to which he devoted much of the second half of his life. In 1985, with hundreds of tons of diving equipment mounted on an ofshore supply vessel moored to four 3-ton anchors, Gimbel's divers remained under pressure for a month, lowered each day to the wreck in a 4-ton steel bell from which, attached to umbilicals bringing air and warmth, they cut a hole in the hulk and swam inside. Although not an archaeological project, Gimbel's curiosity was the same kind of curiosity that drives the archaeologist. Did this virtually 'unsinkable' ocean liner truly go down because a crucial watertight door had been left open? Gimbel's well organized and fully manned expedition conirmed that the door was open, but a 65-ft (19-m) gash he found in the Doria's hull made the question more or less academic, thus conirming the post-accident inquiries in the federal court in New York, as well as in the London insurance community. Were rumors of fortunes stored in two of the Doria's safes true? The safe Gimbel raised contained paper money and certiicates, but not the rumored fortune. Bass cannot believe, however, that Gimbel thought he could recoup from those safes the costs of the expedition he mounted. He is convinced it was a mixture of curiosi.ty and challenge that pushed Gimbel on. Shipwrecks and Society Shipwrecks in American waters can now, regardless of depth or temperature, be located and partly or completely recovered. This has led to intense interest in what happens to them, as shown by a sheaf of contemporary clippings sent by Searle to Bass: 'Divers Hope to Hoist Ship's Safe Tomorrow' (Post Inteligencer, Seattle, Washington, 31 July 1987) and 'Ship Salvage Plan Draws Protest' (The Daily News, Longview, Washington, 27 July 1987), concerning objections by the Underwater Archaeological Society of British Columbia to a salvage team's plans to recover $10 million in valuables from the Governor which sank in U.S. waters in 1921 with loss of life. 'Treasure Hunters Ordered Not to Damage Coral Reef' (The Houston Post, 25 July 1987): 'A federal judge refused Friday to allow a group of treasure hunters to tunnel into an already damaged Gulf of Mexico Last Moments of a Luxuy Liner 6, 7 On 25 July 1956, eleven hours after colliding with another liner, the Andrea Doria sank (right) 50 miles south of Nantucket Island. Thirty-four people died, and the wreck continues to claim victims as divers chance their luck on the ship, whose uppermost structure lies at 165 ft (50 m). In 1985 a saturation diving team explored the Doria's interior and brought up the ship's safe (below) containing paper money but not the rumored fortune. Death of a Battleshp 8, 9 Over 1,000 sailors lost their lives in the sinking of the battleship USS Arizona (Jar right) at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. The great ship now serves as a national memorial, and is protected on the harbor bottom (below right) as a National Park. 25 8 Epiiog coral reef in search of a sunken Spanish galleon that purportedly carried $ 100 million in gold and other valuables.' 'Salvors Vie for Sunken Treasure off [sc] Central America' (The Vir.i1ian-Pi/ot, 9 July 1987), 'Treasure Hunters Claim $4 5 o Million Shipwreck' (Washing/on Post, 18 July 1987), and 'Ship Deies Court Order, Hunts Sunken Treasure' (The f/frginian-Pilot and the Ledgel'-Star, 18 July 1987), all concerning the 1857 wreck of the sidewheel steamer Central America, lost during a hurricane on a voyage from Havana to New York. 'Controversial Titanic Expedition Delayed by Bad Weather, Intention to Salvage Artif acts rom w'reek Called "Grave-Robbing'" (Washington Post, 25 July 1987) and, later, 'Inquiry On Titanic Jewels: Descendant of Victim May Claim Satchel' (Washington Post, 3 September 1987), the last raising insurance and other questions that eventually must be decided by courts of law. The Titanic, especially, has roused strong emotions over the question of 'to-touch' or 'not-to-touch'. A bill was even introduced into the United States Senate that would have prevented import into the United States of any of the artif acts being raised from the vessel. But this is not an archaeological matter. The Titanic is no more an archaeological site than is the Andrea Doria, yet there have been no outcries about disturbing the latter. It is said that the Titanic should not be disturbed because lives were lost during her sinking, but such reasoning would put b.oth salvors and nautical archaeologists out of business around the world. Presumably, then, the rationale f or leaving the Titanic undisturbed is the same as that which led to the raising of private funds to save and restore New York's famed Carnegie Hall when it was destined to be torn down: some structures are simply so venerable that a suficient segment of society wants them left intact for posterity. Such respect for certain noteworthy vessels is warranted, regardless of their archaeological value. An example is the USS Arizona, sunk during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Honolulu on 7 December 1941. Three battleships -- West Virginia, Oklahoma and Arizona were sunk by dive bombers, ighters and torpedo planes that day, but the single greatest disaster was the loss of the USS Arizona with 1,1oz sailors on board. Now protected as a National Park, the USS Arizona National Memorial includes a concrete and steel structure which spans the ship's remains as they lie on the bottom of Pearl Harbor. The park attracts over a miilion visitors annually. Certainly not all World War II wrecks should become national monuments. The debate over historic pre servation on land - Are we saving too much? .re we saving the right things? must include historic preser vation under water. It would seem wrong to allocate large sums for the preservation of one ship simply because she lies on the ocean floor, when an identical sister ship, rot ting at her moorings, might legitimately and ethically be cut up and sold f or scrap. Yet some preservation ists seem still not to recognize this double standard. With tens or even hundreds of thousands of wrecks in the Americas, the public may believe that this debate over what to save may be postponed, but such is not the case. Although only a fraction of existing wrecks warrant archaeological excavation, it is exactly that fraction wrecks of historical importance, or those rich in artifacts� that attract treasure-hunters who are not motivated b y the desire to recover and restore the past of rhe Americas. As pointed out in Chapter Three, all the known wrecks of the Age of Exploration were damaged by modern looters before archaeologists reached them. An example of a wreck that does warrant scientiic examination is the British frigate Hussar. At 3 pm on z 3 November 1780 she struck Pot Rock in the gauntlet of reefs called Hell Gate in New Yorlc's East River, and inally sank at 7 pm several miles upstream in the Bay of Brothers at a depth of 42 ft (12.8 m). Some $3 million in gold specie had supposedly been boxed and stored earlier beneath the ballast of the Hussar by a few trusted British tars; a new crew had then been recruited and only two officers notiied of the existence of the gold, At Wallabout Bay in New York Harbor the Hussar was said to have taken on seventy American prisoners and an additional $1.8 million in gold rom the backup ship Merc1,:y, before sailing up the East River. After over 200 years and a score of treasure-hunting expeditions the mysteries of the Hussar remain unsolved: Did she have gold aboard at all, or was it transferred to the 1Wercury? If she took fo ur hours to sink, did she tie up and unload the gold? Why, in those our hours, did not the 107 men reported lost save themselves, and why in that time were the American prisoners not released? The answers to these questions will be found only when a proper archaeological expedition is mounted at the Bay of Brothers. Society must decide, then, which wrecks should be protected from commercial exploitation, just as society protects certain structures on land while· others of equal vintage are razed. In some cases this is easy. We would not ailow an entrepreneur to dismantle either Mount Vernon or the Alamo for private gain. Why, then, should a diver be allowed to dismantle one of Columbus' or La Salle's ships to sell or own for personal beneit? Some historic wrecks should be preserved through excavation and conservation; others should be preserved under water f or the pleasure of uture generations of visiting divers. Society must also decide the cost it will bear in order to learn about and preserve the past. In the near future, new knowledge will continue to come from relatively shallow or even underground wrecks. Will archaeology be able to take advantage of the new technologies to search and work deeper? Only the tiniest fraction of the millions spent on the H-bomb search would ever be available for seeking an archaeological site under similar conditions. The United States was willing to pay the necessary millions of dollars for the Titanic search primarily because it provided a test of equipment with potential military Epilog value. The cost of saturation diving on HMS Edinburgh was more than offset by the value of gold recovered. Archaeologists will not come by such vast sums in their search for knowledge. Should deep wrecks then be left to entrepreneurs who might pay for their recovery through sales of artiacts? Or should they be saved for the future, when new techniques could lower costs of working at great depth? Education must play a role in the study of whichever wrecks do warrant archaeological study. Although often commendable, some of the pioneering research described in this book was conducted by divers with only a smattering of historical knowledge, or by archaeologists with scant familiarity with ship design. Nautical archaeology remains an infant branch of archaeology,however, and most projects described in the preceding chapters were conducted only within the past two decades. Meanwhile, the number of archaeologists capable of excavating and interpreting both land and underwater sites is growing, as evidenced by the authors of those chapters. Over the years Bass' teams have learned, both in the Mediterranean and in the Caribbean,that for every month of diving,two years must be spent on the conservation of excavated artifacts, including entire hulls; on the cataloging,drawing and photographing of these inds; on library, archival and museum research; and on interpret ing and publishing the discoveries. The nautical archaeologist need not be expert in every phase of this research, but must have suficient training to choose and evaluate able assistants and colleagues in each area. And he or she must remember that the cost of conservation and restoration in true archaeological work usually exceeds the cost of diving,even on wrecks more than r 5 oft (46 m) deep. Humans being fallible, mistakes will be made in the attempt to draw distinctions between wrecks of social or historic signiicance and those of more commercial value. 'Signiicance' is in the eye of the beholder. Yet the public has agreed that looters should not be allowed to bulldoze any native American mounds for pottery to sell. The 259 public should come to see historic monuments under water simply as historic monuments. At the same time the public, and especially the news media, must recognize the difference between those who excavate historic ships for knowledge and those who recover them solely for monetary gain. The press too quickly bestows the title 'underwater archaeologist' on any diver who raises artif acts from the deep. There is a long and honorable tradition of salvage at sea,but it must not be confused with archaeology. Nor should legitimate salvors be confused with plunderers and pirates, as U.S. statute makes clear: Whoever plunders, steals, or destroys any money, goods,merchandise,or other effects from or belonging to any vessel in distress, or wrecked, lost, stranded, or cast away,upon the sea,or upon any reef,shoal,bank or rocks of the sea, or in any other place within the admiralty and maritime jurisdiction of the United States, shall be ined not more than $ 5 ,ooo or imprisoned not more than ten years, or both. (r8 U.S. Code 1658). In the debate over historic shipwrecks, care must be given to truth. Bass has published a list of more than a dozen myths spread by treasure-hunters in order to justify their often destructive work: that they are 'saving' the wrecks from future storms; that they do not need to record or preserve the hulls they destroy while searching for treasure because detailed plans of galleons and other early ships exist in Spanish archives; that hulls in the New World are not as well preserved as those in the Mediterranean and thus deserve no special care; that the only way to pay for underwater survey and excavation is through the sale of artifacts; that duplicate artifacts have no archaeological value; that the only incentive for looking for and excavating early shipwrecks is monetary gain. Perhaps this book will put some of the myths to rest. The quest for history is as exciting as any search for treasure. It is a quest that beneits us all. It is a quest that has begun in earnest in the waters of the Americas. It is a quest that will continue as long as we care about our past. Postscript Since the first publication of this book, discoveries have been made from almost every period covered. Early- to mid-sixteenth-century wrecks include two in the Baha mas, one of Cuba, and one, probably lost by Spanish explorer Tristan de Luna, of Florida. Later sixteenth century wrecks include the Western Ledge Reef Wreck of Bermuda, and the Spanish galleon Nuestra Senora de/ Rosario of Cuba. English-built ships of the seventeenth century include one at Monte Cristi,Dominican Republic, and another, perhaps H.M.S. Swan, in the middle of the sunken city of Port Royal,Jamaica. An exciting discovery of that era is French explorer Rene La Salle's ship La Belle in Matagorda Bay, Texas. The Land Tortoise, a British floating gun battery from the French and Indian War,was found in Lake George. Excavation of the Revolutionary War coferdam wreck (Betsy) in the York River is completed, and a replica of the gunboat Philadelphia has sailed on Lake Champlain. From the War of r8 r 2,research on the Jeferson in Lake Ontario is complete, and work has begun on the British brig Linnet and the American gunboat Allen in Lake Champlain. Hulls of early steamers Water Witch and Champlain have been studied in the latter lake, and the Arabia, recovered from the Missouri River, is another Bertrand. Located Civil War vessels include the steamer Maple Leaf, near Jacksonville, Florida, and the Confederate submarine Hunly , near Charleston. 260 Glossay Glossary aft toward the stern of a vessel amidships middle portion of a ship lengthwise or crossways athwartships from one side of a ship to the other; at right angles to the keel ballast heavy material in a ship's hold to lower her center of gravity and provide grcarcr stability when she carries little or no cargo bateau (battcau) lat-bottomed double-ended boat batten strip of wood used in shipbuilding to reproduce the curves of a vessel's hull beakhead ship's head forward of the forecastle, forming a small deck over the stem beam maximum width of a vessel; a horiz()ntal transverse timber forming pan of a ship's structure bergantin a brig (Spanish) bilge bottom of a ship's hull bonaventure mizzen second mizzenmast on four masters boom spar to which is attached the foot of a fore and-aft sail bow forward part of a ship's side, from the point where the planks curve inwards to where they meet at the stem bower anchor anchor permanently attached to a cable and stowed in the bow reads for use bowsprit spar projecting forward of a sailing ship's stem brace rope attached to the boom or yard of a sail, used to control its position; a metal strap used to strengthen the framework of a ship brig two-masted sguare-rigger brigantine two-masted sailing ship, rigged square on the foremast and fore-and-aft with square topsails on the mainmast bulkhead vertical partition dividing a ship into sections bulwarks sides of a vessel above the upper deck buttresses short timbers placed on either side of the keelson and mast step to provide lateral support for the step caprail timber atop the side planking of a vessel caravel two- or three-masted sailing ship with broad beam, high poop-deck and lateen rig; used by Spanish and Portuguese in r 5th and 16th centuries carrack round-sterned merchant ship with distinctive triangular bow used in the Mediterranean in the 15th and 16th centuries carvel-built having the planks all flush from keel to gunwale carvel planking smooth seamed planking castle tower or dcfensi'e post on the deck of a ship caulk to stop up the scams between planks ceiling internal planking of a ship's hull chine angle at which the side and bottom of a hull join cleat short projections of wood or metal, used for a variety of purposes clench bending over and pounding down a bolt or nail clinker-built said of a vessel whose planks run fore and aft, with the lower edge of one plank overlapping the upper edge of the plank below clipper fast sailing ship with concave bow, ine lines and raked masts close to the wind sailing as nearly as possible towards the compass point from which the wind is blowing composite ship wooden ship with iron or steel framing deadeye round or pear-shaped wooden block pierced bv several holes, used mainlv to secure the standing rigging deadwood blocks of timber attached to top of keel to fill out narrow spaces in hull dhow lateen-rigged Arab vessel with one or two masts, usuallv raked Down-Easter large wooden square-rigger built on the coast of ,1aine in the late 19th century draft (draught) the depth of water displaced by a vessel dunnage brushwood or other material used to protect cargo fairlead any ixture which leads a rope in the required direction iller short plank set betwel:n frames on the outboard edge of the ceiling to close the gap between frames lukes triangular extcnsiom to the ar111, (d ,111 anchor fore in the forward part of a vessel; towards the stem fore-and-aft rig sails fitted in a fore-and-aft direction and secured on their forward side to a stay or mast forecastle the raised, forward part of the upper deck, extending from the beakhead to the foremast or just aft of it; the seamen's .1w1rters in a merchant ship forelock bolt a bolt with a head at one end and, at the other, a slot through which a metal pin or key is thrust to lock the bolt in place foremast forward mast in a vessel \Vith two or more masts frames atlnvartship timbers forming the internal skeleton of a ship freeboard distance from the waterline up to the rail or gunwale frigate medium-size square-rigged warship of the r 7th through 19th centuries futtock one of several members joined to form a frame gaff spar used along the head of a fore-and-aft sail galleon large sailing ship v1ith three or more masts, latcen-rigged on the after masts and square-rigged on the foremast and mainmast; used as a warship or merchanr ship in the 15th through 18th centuries galley oared warship or merchant ship also propelled by sails garboard irst range of planks above a ship's keel gondola large, lat-bottomed river or lake barge much like a batcau gudgeon metal strap with eye, bolted to the sternpost to hold rudder pintlc gunboat a small, shallow-draft armed vessel gunwale the upper edge of a ship's side half-deck a deck above the main deck which docs not continue the whole length of the vessel halyard rope or tackle used for hoisting or lowering sails and a vessel's other top gear hawse-hole hole in bow through which anchor cable passes hawser a mooring rope or cable heel knee timber connecting the keel to the sternpost helm the apparatus by which the ship is steered, consisting of the rudder and a tiller or steering wheel hogging the result of stress on a ship's hull making her droop at stem and stern while her middle arches hogging truss a cable running fore and aft, to prevent hogging ironclad a 19th-century warship sheathed with iron or steel plates kayak a canoe made of skins stretched over and covering a wooden framework, except for an opening on top for the paddler keel the lowest longitudinal timber, forming the backbone of a ship keelson longitudinal timber of a ship, fixed above the frames and to the keel knarr broad-beamed Viking cargo vessel knee a piece of timber having an angular bend, used to join two perpendicular members lapstrake see clinker-built lateen sail a triangular sail extended by a long tapering yard the lower end of which is brought down to the deck leeward away from the wind; on the side sheltered from the wind lighter boat used in pon- for transporting cargo between ship and quay limber boards ceiling planks which can be removed for cleaning the bilges mainmast principal mast; chief mast in two-masted vessel; center mast in a three-masted vessel; second mast from stem in others man-o,-war warship mast cap two-hole itting which holds an upper mast in one hole the top of a lower mast which fits in the hole mast partner fitmcnt at deck leYcl to provide additional support for a mast mast step socket for the heel of a mast; an attachment for fastening the lower end of a ship's mast to the hull mastercouple the midship frame, usually at the widest part of a vessel mizzenmast the mast directly aft of the mainmast mold mark raised line of metal left on shot at the juncture of the two halYes of the shot mold nao merchant ship s.1uare fore-, main- and sprit-sails and a lateen on its mizzenmast orlop deck lowest deck in a warship, laid o'er the beams of the hold packet r 8th-century vessels named after the packets of mail they carried, but from I 8 I 8 merchant ships with regular schechdes over ixed routes parral collar by which a yard is fastened to the mast parral beads wooden beads strung together to facilitate the smooth movement of a parral pinnace open, gcneral-serYicc vessel propelled by oars or sails pintle vertical bolt at the back of the rudder which its into a gudgeon on the sternpost to form a hinge privateer a prinncly owned warship under license to the goYcrnment prow pointed forward end of a ship rabbet deep grooYe or chann�l cut into a piece of timber to receive the edge of a plank ribs curved frame-timbers of a ship, to which the sideplanking is nailed rigging system of ropes used to support the masts and operate the sails rove small plate or ring on which the point of a nail or rivet is beaten lown row galley early 19th-century term for small oar and sail-powered warships rubbing strakes heavy protective side timbers on a ship scantlings dimensions of any piece of timber used in shipbuilding scarf lapped joint connecting two timbers or planks schooner sailing vessel with two or more masts, with all lower sails rigged fore-and-aft shank shaft forming the principal part of an anchor, connecting the arms to the stock sheave the wheel of a block sheet rope controlling the after (lower) corner(s) of a sail ship-of-the-line warship mounting 50 or more guns shrouds heavy ropes that brace the mas1 athwartships single-masted vessel rigged sloop originally a mainsail and sometimes fore and aft with a a war vessel, larger topsails and Brief Guide to Museums and Research Institutes than a gunboat, with guns mounted on a single deck snag submerged tree stump or branch dangerous to navigation snag boat steamboat designed to remove snags spar rounded length of timber such as a yard, gaff or boom spike heavy nail sponson structure projecting over the side of a vessel spritsail small auxiliary sail at the forward end of a ship sprue mark mark left on cast object where rhc metal column formed in the entry canal to the mold has been removed square-rigged said of a vessel rigged with square sails square-sail four-cornered sail set on a yard athwartships stays strong ropes to support the mast fore and aft steamship ship propelled by a steam engine stem timber forming the front extremity of a vessel stern rear end of a vessel sternpost timber at the extreme rear end of a vessel and extending from the keel to deck level or above stock heavY cross-bar of an anchor strake one-row of planking on the side or bottom of a ship stringer heavy inside strake secured to the frames tack forward lower part of a sail thole wooden or meta! pin or peg inserted singly or in pairs in a vessel's gunwale to hold and guide an oar thwart cross scat in an open boat tiller lever for controlling a ship's rudder or steering gear tompion object, usually wooden, placed in the 261 mouth of a breech chamber to keep the powder dry, or in a gun's muzzle to protect it from corrosion transom athwartship timber attached to the sternpost treenail cylindrical wooden fastening trunnel colloquial term for rreenail; also trenncl tryworks place for rendering, or melting out, fat or blubber tumblehome the sloping-in of a vessel's topsides above the point of greatest width umiak large open boat made of skins stretched on a wooden framework wales horizontal planks heavier than the rest, extending along the \'hole of a ship's sides yard horizontal athwartships spar itted to the forward side of the mast, to support S(]Uare sails BifGuide to Musums andResearch Institutes GENERAL Calvert Marine Museum P.O. Box 97, Solomons, MD 20688 Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum St Michaels, MD 21663 Columbia River Maritime Museum Astoria, OR 97103 The Great Lakes Historical Society 480 Main St, Vermilion, OH 44089 Maine Maritime Museum 963 Washington St, Bath, NIE 04530 The Mariners' Museum Newport News, VA 23606 M.I.T. Museum and Historical Collection Hart Nautical Collection, 265 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139 Peabody Museum of Salem East India Marine Hall, Salem, MA 01970 Philadelphia Maritime Museum 321 Chestnut St, Philadelphia, PA 19106 The Smithsonian Institution National 11useum of American History, W'ashington, D.C. 20560 Vancouver Maritime Museum 1905 Ogden St, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6J 3J9 Canada CHAPTER ONE The Cleveland Museum of Natural History W'ade Oval, l:niversitv Circle, Cleveland, OH 44106 Institute of Nautical Archaeology P.O. Drawer HG, College Station, TX 77841 Jamestown Festival Park P.O. Drawer JF, Williamsburg, VA 23187 The Mariners' Museum Newport News, VA 23606 1 Conducts research on ships qf exploration 1 Houses artffacts from the Hixhhorn Cqy ivreck The Mariners' Museum Newport News, VA 23606 CHAPTER FOCR Philadelphia Maritime Museum 321 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19106 Basque Whaler Project Pilgrim Hall Museum Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1 Goo Liverpool Court, Ottawa, Ontario KIA OH4, Canada Conducts Red BqJ' research CHAPTER FIVE Archaeological Research Division of Historical Resources, Florida Department of State, R. A. Gray Building, Tallahassee, FL 32399-0250 Supervises sh1p1vreck archaeolgy Bermuda Maritime Museum P.O. Box 273, Somerset, Bermuda Corpus Christi Museum 1900 North Chaparral, Corpus Christi, TX 78041 D.c. Houses art?facts from the Hi,hhon C_y )reck Tbe CEDAM Museum Xelha, Quintana Roo, Mexico DisplqJ'S artifacts from the Bahit1 Mtt)eres wreck Departmento del Arqueologia Subacuatica vfuseo Naciona! de Antropologia c Historia, Pasco de la Rcforma Ghandi, -foxico ), D.F., 1'vlcxico Responsible for For remains rf 'Concepcion, Tolosa', and Guadalupe' 1 1 Museo Servicio do Documentacao do Geral da Marinha Rio de Janeiro, Brazil For'Sacramento' Museum of Florida History R. A. Gray Building, Tallahassee, FL For ,715 Spanish plate leet Armed Forces History Collection National Museum of American History, The Smithsonian Institution, W'ashington, 20560 archaeoloJ?J' in lvlexico Port Royal Project Nautical Archaeology Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 h'xcavates Port Rq_yal and conducts summer ield school South Carolina Institute of Archaeology University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208 CHAPTER SEVEN Basin Harbor Maritime Museum Basin Harbor, VT 05491 I ;or CqJ'O 1\'tteN1 ship1vreck CHAPTER THREE I hr I7 IJ Spanish plate fleet For Aztec dtt,Ollt canoe Responsible for uncler}Jater archaeolgy hull remains qf Sparro1v Ha}Jk' Plimoth Plantation P.O. Box 1620, Plymouth, vlA 02360 For replicas of'My/01ver' and shallop Port Royal Museum Port Royal, Jamaica Adirondack Museum Blue Lv[ountain Lake, NY McLarty State Museum Sebastian Inlet State Park, Sebastian, FL Museo Regional Campeche, Niexico Comision de Rescate Arqueologico Submarino Musco de las Casas Realcs, Calle las Damas Esq. Mercedes, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Court St, Plymouth, MA 02360 For remains qf Padre Island JJJrecks Museo de las Casas Reales Calle las Damas Esq. ;lercedes, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic CHAPTER TWO For remains of Ronson ship For information about BroJn's Feny Jreck and undenvater archaeolgy in the state f''or'San Pedro' and'San Antonio' E:or Ringler dug011t canoe Museo Nacional de Antropologia e Historia Pasco de la Reforma y Ghandi, Mexico 5, D.F., Mexico For replicas of 'Susan Constant', Godspeed' and Discove,y' St Lucie County Historical Museum Ft Pierce, FL For I7 I J Spanish plate fleet Treasure Salvors, Inc. Museum Key West, FL T For '. uestra SenOra de /ltocha' Exhibit of !-,ake ChamplaiJls hist01y/ also full-scale replica of Lake George batea1 Champlain Maritime Society P.O. Box 745, Burlington, V'T 05402 Machault Museum Rcstigouche, Quebec Artfacts and hull remains of ilachault' I CHAPTER EIGHT Armed Forces History Collection National Museum of American Historv, Smithsonian Institution, -'ashington, D.c. 20560 For'Philadelphia' Daughters of the American Revolution Museum 1776 D Street, 1'.W., Washington, D.C 20006-5392 For I Auypsta' Maine State Museum State House Station 83, Augusta, ME 04333 F'or artifacts from Dfence' I The Mariners, Museum Newport News, VA 23606 CHAPTER SIX Bermuda Maritime Museum Somerset, Bermuda P.O. [;or Displqys Lake George bateau 'Sea Venture' For artffacts from York River Jrecks Research Center for Archaeology Division of Historic Landmarks, Commonwealth of Virginia, P.O. Box 424, Yorktown, VA 23690 262 Sources of Quotations Sons and Daughters of Pioneer Rivermen 89 Park St, Canal Winchesrer, OH 43110 Steamship Historical Society of America 414 Pelton Avenue, Staten Island, NY 10310 Yorktown Visitor Center Colonial National Historical Park, P.O. Box Yorktown, VA 23690 210, For Yorkt01vn 1vrecks Hamilton-Scourge Foundation 7 I Main Street, Hamilton, Ontario LSN 3T4, Canada CHAPTER TWELVE Ertablished over wreck qf the 'Phoenix' Bernice P. Bishop Museum P.O. Box 19000-A, Honolulu, Hawaii 96819 Visitor Center, Fish and Wildlife Service Desoto National ,'ildlifc Refuge, U.S. Department of the Interior, RR 1, Box 114, Missouri Valley, IA 51555 Historic Naval and Military Establishments Huronia Historical Parks, P.O. Box 160, Midland, Ontario L4R 4K8, Canada For art{facts jiw• 'Bertrand' Remains of the 'Tecumseth' and naval slip Historic Naval and Military Establishments CHAPTER ELEVEN P.O. Box 1800, -C.P.1800, Pcnetanguishenc, Ontario LoK 1PO, Canada Marine Museum of Upper Canada Toronto Historical Board, Exhibition Place, Toronto, Ontario MGK 3C 3, Canada vlodel of the '!-Jan;f and other 1812 material Nancy Island Historic Site c/o Wasaga Beach Provincial Park, v'asaga Beach, Ontario, Canada Calvert Marine Museum P.O. Box 97, Solomons, ViD 20688 Caswell Neuse Historic Site Kingston, NC Remains of CSS ]\r euse and associated collection Confederate Museum St Georges, Bermuda Small collection of artfacts associated with blockade running Remains of 'l\Jan�y' Confederate Naval Museum 201 4th St, P.O. Box 1022, Columbus, GA 31902 Sackets Harbor Historic Site Sackets Harbor, NY Displays CSS 'Chattahoochee' and CSS 'Jackson'/'lvlusco,ee' F.:'xhibits describe U.S. Naval base U.S. Flagship Niagara Museum The Mariners' Museum Newport News, VA 23606 Erie, P\ Restored 20-gun brig 'Niagara' Curates artifactsj,·om USS 'vlonitor' 1\'ational .\.arine Sancttla!J U.S. Frigate Constellation Constellation Dock, Baltimore, MD 21202 U.S.S. Constitution Museum Box 1812, Boston, MA 02r29 1 Museum of the Confederacy Richmond, VA Also displays 18th- and I9th-century shipbuildinx City Hall Kaslo, British Columbia, Canada Duluth, Missabe & Iron Range Railway Co. Duluth, MN 55801 The Howard National Steamboat Museum 1101 E. Market St, Jefersonville, IN 47130 Curates art!Jacts from blockade rtmners with additional collections at: Fort Fisher State Historic Site, Kure Beach, ,\'C Inland Rivers Library 8th and Vine Streets, Cincinnati, OH 45202 Maine Maritime Museum 963 ,'ashington St, Bath, ME 04530 -·or 'Seguin' ( 1884, steaJ1-scre1v) The Missouri Historical Society Jeferson Memorial Building, St Louis, MO 63r12 Ericsson patent model qf For'Eureka' (side-1vheel ferr;1 North Carolina Maritime Museum 315 Front St, Beaufort, NC 28p6 Program in Maritime History Department of History, East Carolina L1niversity, Greenville, NC 27843 The Science Museum South Kensington, London, England Models, pictures, shipyard tools For 'Star of India' ( r863) Mystic Seaport Museum Mystic, CT 06355 For'Charles W. Morgan' and 1vhaling histo!J'i and other historic vesseLr National Maritime Museum of San Francisco Golden Gate National Recreation Area, San Francisco, CA 94123 For holin�,S of' 1\ria,rfic' Old Dartmouth Historical Society Whaling Museum 18 Johnny Cake Hill, New Bedford, M\ 02740 Ships of the Sea Museum North Carolina Division of Archives and History 109 E. Jones St, Raleigh, NC Historic Ships Unit Golden Gate National Recreation Area, 2905 Hyde St, San Francisco, CA 94109 P.O. Box 297, Sharon, MA 02067 Maine Maritime Museum 963 Washington St, Bath, ME 04530 Displays remains of 'Geor,e R. Skofield' Maritime Museum Association of San Diego 1306 North Harbor Drive, San Diego, CA 92101 Plans qf blockade runner'I!.lla' and oiher ships register documents Displ_ys qf Wilmington and Fort Fisher durin, Civil War (dioramas with ship models) For 'Edna G.' (1896, steam-scre1v) For 'Great Britain' (I843) The Kendall Whaling Museum The Peabody Museum of Salem New Hanover County Museum X'ilmington, NC For 'Moyie' (1Jy8, sleam-sternwb!e!) 'or 'Falls of Cyde' (1878) Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum P.O. Box 636, St Michaels, MD 21663 For'Edna E. Lockwood' ( 1889) Great Britain Foundation Great W'estern Dock, Gas Ferry Road, Bristol, England Curates artifacts associated with Civil War naval activities National Maritime Museum Greenwich, England CHAPTER TEN Displ_ys L'SS 'Cairo' Steamboat Photo Company 121 River Avenue, Sewickley, PA 15143 Vermont State Underwater Historic Preserve CHAPTER NINE Vicksburg National Military Park Box 349, Vicksburg, MS 39180 c·ss'vfonitor's' enp,ine East India Square, Salem, MA 01970 Philadelphia Maritime Museum 321 Chestnut St, Philadelphia, PA 19106 503 East River St, Savannah, GA 31401 South Street Seaport Museum 207 Pront St, New York, NY 100;8 Spring Point Museum SMVTI, Fort Rd, South Portland, ME 04106 Displ_ys bo11 of extreme clipper 'Snow Squall' EPILOG U.S. Naval Academy Museum Annapolis, MD 21402 U.S. Navy Memorial Museum Bldg 76, v'ashingron Navy Yard, X:ashington, D.C. U.S.S. Arizona Memorial Park Honolulu, Hawaii 96818 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, MA 02543 r -,·or information on ' l 'itanic' Sourcs ofQuotations CHAPTER ONE p. 19, col. 2, I. 23-31: Columbus, C:., The .Journal, 1960; p. 19, col. 2, I. 40-49: author's trans.; p. 20, col. 1, !. 13-16: author's trans.; p. 20, col. 2, I. 7-11: author's trans.; p. 22, col. 2, I. 28-38: Columbus, F., 1959; p. 28, col. 1, I. 13-22: Benzoni, G., 1858. CHAPTER TWO p. 33, col. 1, I. 16-19: Columbus, C., 1960; p. 33, col. 2, I. 28-29: Columbus, F., 1959; p. 38, col. 1, I. 40-41: Columbus, C., 1960: p. 40, col. 2, I. 6"-8: ibid.; p. 40, col. 2, I. 20-29: Columbus, F., 1959. CHAPTER SEVEN p. 130, col. 2-I. 26, p. 132, col. 1, I. 4: Kalm, P., 1972; p. 132, col. 1, I. 6-rr: ibid. CHAPTER EIGHT p. 149, col. 1, I. 37-col. 2, I. 13: Oswald, R., 'General Observations Relative w the Present State of the ,'ar, London, August 9, 1779', ff. 63-64, William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan; p. 149, col. 2, I. 31··P· 150, col. 1, I, rG: Germaine, Lord G., to Sir H. Clinton, \X"hitehall, 8 March 1778, CO 5/95, ff. 35-49, Public Record Ofice, London; p. 15o, col. 1, I. 21-23: Oswald, R., op. cir., f. Go; p. 150, col. z, I. 40-43: The Whalemen's Shipping List, New Bedford, Mass., 30 Nov. 1869;p. 163, col. 1, I. 27-35: Tucker, St G., 'Diary of the Siege of Yorktown', William and 1VfaJ Q11ar1tr/y, 3rd series, vol. 5 (r 948) 391; p. 163, col. 2, /. 15-"26: Thacher, J., A Military Jounal duri,�, the At�rfra1 R.evolutionaJ' War, from 177; to IJSJ, Boston, Cottons & Barnard 1827, 283. CHAPTER NINE p. 183, col. 1, I. 18-"25: U.S. Archives Record Group 45. CHAPTER ELEVEN p. 209, col. 1, I. 7-10: Selfridge, T., Memories of Tho1as 0. Selfri_�e, Jr. Rear-Admiral L'.S.I\'., Nc:w York, Putnam 1924; p. 209, col. 1, I. 14-18: Parker, 1883; p. 209, col. 1, I. 32--col. 2, I. 6: Greene, S. D., 'An Eyewitness Account: I Fired the First Gun and Thus 1 Commenced the Great Battle', American Herita!,e 8, June 1957; p. 214, col. 2, I. 19-22: Bear.ss, 1966; p. 218, :ol. 1, /. II-16: 'Operations of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron from October 28, 1864, to February 1, 1865', in The Oficial Records o/ the Ulfi!f and Confederate Navies in the War qf the Rebellion, ,'ashington D.C. 1894-1922, vol. 11; p. 220, col. 2, I. 21-14: Jones, 1961, vol. 2, 375; p. 221, col. 1, I. 26-col. 2, I. 2: Turner, NL, 1Ja)' Grqy: A Story �f the Confederate \la_y on the Chattahoochee River, Confederate Navv Museum, Columbus, Georgia; p. 224, col. 2, /. 1--2: Burnside, \. E., Battles and J ,eaders of the Civil War, The Century Press, New York, NY 1887, vol. r, 663;p. 230, col. 2, I. 3-9: Dahlgren, M. V., Memoires a/John 1. Dt1h{,nn1 Rear Admiral Llnited States Nm)', Boston I882. Ftrther Reading 26 3 FurtherReading Abbreviations IJ1\'l International Journal rf Nautical Archatolg)' Jl'1 Jour•al of Fi,/d /lrchaeogy ,\1.A11L, \1e1oin of tb� Peabody vfoseum of Archaeolo,J· and lithn�/og' NG N �ational Geot,raphic CH1\PTER ONE The Earliest Watercraft r. CIIAPELLE, The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats qf North America, Smithsonian Institution, i'ashington, D.C. 1964. ASirn, G., 'Analysis of the Legends', in 1\shc, G. (ed.), The Quest.for America, I. ondon r971, 15-52. BE1'SO", E. P. (ed.), The Sea in the Pre-Columbian World, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and ADNEY, E.T. AlD 11. Co!lcctions, X'ashington, D.C. 1977. BE;"ZOS"I, G., Hislo)' qf the �\�e,v World�, Girolamo Benzoni of 11ila11 Shewi,, his Travels in A,,urfra) fro' ,,1n 1541--1556, ed. and trans. by \X·. H. Smyth, Haklurt Society, London 1858. BLO�{, 'F., 'Com-merce, Trade and Monetary Units of the Mava', liddle American Research Series PJtbJi(a/io,r 4, Tulane Un-'ersity, New Orleans, LA 193 2 · BRAY, w., The God of}:/ Dorado, London 1978. BROSE, n. s. and r. GREBER, 'An Archaic Dugout from Savannah Lake, Ohio', \1.idcontinental Journal of /lrchaeolo,gy 7 (1982) 245-282. BCLLE;, R. P. and H. K. BROOKS, 'Two .Ancient Florida Dugout Canoes', Quarter()' journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 30 (1967) 97-107. r CLAIBORKE, R., The First Americans 1 \ elI York 1973. CODEX �IEKDOZA, Codex IAutdoz.a: The Meximn 1\1af11gript, Knmvn as the Co/Jutio,r qf \1.endoza and Pruernd il the Bodleian Libra1:;· 1 O,ford, 3 vols, ed. and trans. by J. C. Clark, London 1938. C:OLC\ncs, c., The Journal of Columbus, abs. b y B. de Las Casas and trans. by C. Jane, New York 1960. -Select Letters of Christopher Columbus 1vith Other Ori,inal Documents Re!atiny, to [-!is Four V?yaies to the T <\ e) Word, ed. and trans. by R. H. ;\lajor, Hakluyt Society, London 1870; repr. New York 1961. -Select Documents 1/!ustratin, the Forr Vqya;U of Co!umhus Including those Contained in R. H. 1Ut!/or 1 s Select Letters qf Christopher Columbus I, ed. and trans. by . Jane, Hakluyt Society, London 1930; repr. Krause Reprints, Germany 1967. c:0Lt::'vrn1;s, F., The L�/e q/ the Admiral Christopher Co/um/ms �)' His Son Ferdinand, trans. and annot. by B. Keen, New Jersey 1959. CORTfa, H., Letters rd' Cortds ( the Five Letters �f Rdatiofl from Fenando Cortis to the EMperor Cbarlts V), 2 vols, trans. by F. \. MacNutt, New York and London I 908, c:i:smNG, F. 11., 'A Preliminary Report on the Exploration of Ancient Key-Dweller Remains on the Gulf Coast of Florida', Proceedin,�s of the American Phi!osophim/ Socie[)' 35 no. r 35, Philadelphia, PA 1897. DE BOOY, T., 'Lucayan Artifacts from the Bahamas', American ,-1fthropolo1,ist 15 (1913) 1-7. DE LA1'DA, DIEGO YN(g/a11 Before and /If/er the Conquest, trans. by X'. Gates, New York 1978. niAz DEL CASTILLO, BERKAL, The Dis,overy and Conquest qf Vfexico 1517-1;21, ed. by G. (;.rci. and trans. by A. P. Mauclslay, New York 1956. DCRi'.:, DIEGO, The -1ztecs: The Hi.rtoJ_J' of the Indies of Xe! Spain, trans. by D. Heyden and F. �Iorcasitas, New York 1964. 1':l)WARDS, c. R., 'Aboriginal Sail in the New X·orld', So11t/J)est .foumal qf /1nthropoly 21 ( 1965) 35 1 358. /1bori,inal Watercr/i on the /J1cijic Co1s/ rf So11th //,eri.a, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1965. -'Possibilities of Pre-Columbian \faritimc Contact'- among New X'orld Civilizations', I �atin American Center Pamphlet Series 8, University of v'isconsin, Milwaukee, W'l 1970. ---'Pre-Columbian Maritime Track in Mesoamerica', Papers of the i\'eHJ Worl /lrchaeologica! Uotmdation 40 ( l 978) l 99-209. FARRIS, :. �L and A. G. .uI.LER, '\faritime Culture Contact of the Maya: Underwater Survevs and Test Excavation in Qui�tana Re)(), Mexico', IjN A 6 (1977) 141- 15 I. c;nnr;cs, J. L., Ancient Nlen �! the Arctic, New York 1967. GRIEDUt, T., 'Periods in Pecos Style Pictographs', American AfltiqNi(y 31 (1966) 710�720. IIA�1�T0'D, K., 'Classic Maya Canoes', Ij1\'1 10 (1981) 173-185. HARRINGTON, J. P., Tomol: Chumash Watercraft as Described in the E.thno,raphic Notes of John P. Harrington, ed. and :rnnot. by T. Hudson, J. Timbrook and M. Rempe, Socorro 1978. JIOR.:-:1.L, J,, Water Transport: Ori,ins and har(y I:.·volution, Cambridge (England) r 946. I'.:GSTAD, It., 'Norse Explorers', in Ashe, G. (ed.), The Quest for America, London 1971, 96-112. -'Norse Sites at L'Anse aux Meadows, in Ashe, G. (ed.), The .Quest for America, London 1971, 175-197· JOHNSTONE, P,, The Sea-Craft �l Prehi.rtoo·, el. by Sean McGrail, London and Cambridge, MA 1980. KA'.':DARE, R. P., 'Mississippian Dugout Canoes and the Moundville Phase', \ {A thesis, Cniversity of Arkansas 1983. LAr1'G, A., A1,urrafl Ships, New York 1971. LESillKAR, YI. E., 'The Mexica Canoe: An Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Study of its Design, Uses, and Significance', MA thesis, L;niversity of Texas at Austin 1982. -'Construction of a Dugout Canoe in the Parish of St Ann, Jamaica', Proceedingr of the Sixteenth Ca.f,re•ce on li•dmv"t,r lrchaeology, Johnston, P. F. (ed.), So,iel)' for Historical Archaeoly Special l'Kblication Series 4 (1985) 48-; 1. LOTHROP, s. K., ''Jetals from the Cenote of Sacriice, ChichCn Itzl, Yucatan', ,\1P1\1AL 10 no. 2, Cambridge, \IA 1952. LO'E:, s., OriJ/,rs of lht Tainan Culture, West Indies, GiJteborg 193 5. .cc:E, J· \'., 'Ancient Explorers', in Ashe, G. (ed.), The Q,1ul for /IJerica, London 197 r, 53-9 5. T 1r:F-:AT, T. (ed.), Indiam of the i\ orth Pacijc Coast, Seattle and London 1966. �tcc;1u:.E, R., Contact between Native North Americans and the Medieval Norse: A Review of the EYiclence', American lntiql'[J' 49 ( 1984) 4-26. �l:KcsrcK, �L n., 'Aboriginal Canoes in the X1 cst Indies', Yale L�niversi(y Publications in Anthropo!J' 63 (1960) 3-11. �lARCt:S, c;. J., The Conq11est ?l the 1\'orth /It/antic, Ne\V York and Oxford 198 I. �11:GGERS, B. J ., 'Contacts from r\sia', in r\she, G. (ed.), The QNest for America, London 1971, 239-259. -Prehistoric Americ1, Chicago 1972. VIORRIS, E, H., J, CHARLOT and A. A. YIORRIS, The Te,,ple tf the Warriors at ChichJn Itzd1 Yucatin, z vols, Carnegie Institution of X'ashington Publication tuCi, W'ashington, D.C. 1931. 01.;rs, o. and o. CRC.lLIN-P:DERsE,..;, The Sklrldelev Ships, repr. from /le/a /lrchaeolop,ica 38 (1967) Copenhagen. -hv, Vikin, Ships.from Roski/de ljord, The National ii[useum, Copenhagen 1978. OLS0', R. L., The CQ,tifaJtlt Indians and Adze, Canoe, and House 'l.)'pes �f the 1\'orth1vesl Coast, Seattle and l,ondon 1967. PHILLIPS, P. and J· A. BRO\V', Pre-Col11mbirm Shell hn,raPifR,J frot the Cra�� ilound at Spiro1 Oklahoma, Cambridge, MA 1978. ',\JJA(;(:, BER\AHDi:O DE, l·iorentine Codex, 12 vols, trans. by A. J. 0. Anderson and . E. Dibble, The School of American Research and the Lniversity of Utah, Santa Fe, l;M 1950-1969. STEWARD, J. 11. (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, 7 vols, New York 1963.· 1 STL'HTE'A::T, w. c. (ed.), Handbook of 1\ orth American lttdjals, ''ashington, D.C. 1978. THO-rPso:, J. E. s., 'Canoes and Navigation of the Maya and their Neighbors', journal qf the R�yal lnthropologica/ l•.rti!Mt, 79 (1949) 69--78. TLAXCALA, L. DE, A,,tigKeadu m�xraflaJ, p1b/i.ada.r por la junta Col1mhina dt A1exico, Mexico 1892. TOZZER, A. �L, 'ChichCn Itz{l and its Cenote of Sacriice', MP1\1AL' 1 I and 12, Cambridge, MA 1 957· VEGA, G. DE LA, The l'lorida rif the Inca, el. and trans. by J. G. and J. J. Varner, Austin 1980. WATE1n1AK, T. T. and G. COFFI�, 'Types of Canoes on Puget Sound', Indian 1\"otes and 1\101o,raphs, Heye Foundation, New York 1920. WAU:HOPE, R. (ed.), Hane/hook of Middle /lmericcm Indians, 16 vols, Austin 1964-1984. WACGll, F. w., 'Canadian Aboriginal Canoes', The Canadian Field-,\Taturalist 33 no. 2 (1919) 23-33. WEST, R. c., 'Aboriginal Sea Navigation Between Middle and South t\merica', .Jmerican Anthropolo,,isl 63 (1961) l 33-135. CHAPTER TWO The Voyages of Columbus 1 1 Columbus cou:Yrncs, c., The .foumal see Ch. I. c:ou;1ncs, F., see Ch. I. 1-IARRISSE, H., Christophe Co/omh1 son on',ife1 sa vie1 ses tq)'a;;e.r1 sa famille et ses descendantes, 2 vols, Ernest Leroux, Paris 1884-8 i. LA:DSTRb:vr, B., Columbus, New York 1966. LIKES, J. A., Cokffi0l de documentos para la histori1 de Costa Rica relativos al cuarto )' ultimo viqje de Crist6hal Co61, Academia de Geografia e Historia de Costa Rica, San JosC 1952. YrORISOK, s. E., Ad,iral qf the Ocean Sea, 1 L[fe qf Cbristophtr Coltrmbus, 2 vols, Boston, MA 1942. -joNrflaiJ and Other Documents on the Life and V�yaJ;t.r qf Christopher Columbus, New York 1963. :t::;, G. E., The Ceo,raphic Conaptio,u qf Columbus, American Geographical Society, 'cw York 1924. Colvhu/ Ships AL!ERns, E. A. n', La ,o.rtnzio,,i navali e l'arte de/la navi,azione al tempo di Cristqforo Colombo, Ministero lella Pubblica lstruzione, Rome 1893. C0:CAS Y PALAt:, La nao historica Santa Niar!a en la ce!ehraci6n de! IV centenario de! descubrimiento de Amfrica, Imprcnta \lemana, Madrid 1914, ETAYO ELIZO'.:DO, c., La 'Santa V!rfa'1 lei ',Vin(/,_)' la Pinta'1 Graicas Irula, Pamplona 1962. FER1'A:DEZ Dl:RO, c., La nao Santa ,\1arfa1 meJoria de l1 Comisi6n ,/lrqueol��ica -;/ecutiva, El Progreso Editorial, Madrid 1892. CCILLl•:K y TATO, J. F., La carahela Santa Nlarfa, apttntos para su reconstntcci6n, iYiinisrerior de Marina, Madrid 1927. MARTI\EZ-HIDALGO, J. �,r., Las naves de Colon, Musco \faritimo, Barcelona r969. --A hordo de la 'Santa 1Vlaria1 iVluseo Maritimo, Ba rcclona 1 976. �tARX, R. F., The Vt!]'a,!f J/ the ;Villa II, Cleveland, OH 1963. WIKTER, 11., Die Kolumhussch{ffe, Robert Loef Verlag, Magdeburg r 944. I , Co!111Jhus' Shipwruks FRYE, J·, The J�auh for the Santc1 1larfa, New York 1 973• c;ooow1K, s. n., Spanish and Lnt/ish Ruins in .Jamaica, Boston, :vfr\ 1946. 264 Further Reading LIKK, 11. c., Sea Diver, 1 Quest for Hist01y t:nder the Sea, New York 1958. MORISON, s. E. and ,1. OBREG6N, The Caribbean as Columbus Saw It,Boston, MA 1964. s;1nTH, R. c., 'Fathoming Columbus' Caravels', Americas 35=5 (1984) 18-23. -'The Search for the Caravels of Columbus', Oceanus 28:1 (1985) 73-77. CHAPTER THREE SMITH, R. c., D. 1-1. KEITH and D. c. LAKEY, 'The Highborn Cay W'reck: Further Exploration of a 16th-CenturyBahaman Shipwreck', IJNA 14 (1985) 63--72. VIGNERAS, L. A., The Discover;• of South America and the Andalusian Vqya;;es, Chicago r 976. VIG6N, J., Historia de la artilleria espanOla, Instituto Jer6nimo Zurita, Madrid 1947. WEDDLE, R. s., Spanish Sea, The Guf qf Mexico in North American Discover;• 1500-1685, College Station, TX 1985. Shipwrecks of the Explorers AGRICOLA, G., De re metallica, trans. by H. C. and L. H. Hoover, Mineralogical Society of America, New York, NY 1950. Orig. pub. inBasie, 1556. ARANTEGCI y SANZ, o. J·, Apuntes hist6ricos sobre la artil/erfa espanO!a en los sig/os XIV)' XV, Establecimiento Tipogriico de Fortaret, Madrid 1887-1891. ARNOLD, J, n. III and R. s. WEDDLE, The Nautical Archaeology of Padre Island. The Spanish Shipwrecks of 1554, New York 1978. BARKHAM, M. M., Report on 16th Century Spanish Basque Shipbuilding c. 1550 to c. 1600, Parks Canada, Ontario 1981. BIRINGliCCIO, v., Pirotechnia, trans. by C. S. Smith and M. T. Gnudi, Cambridge, MA 1943. Orig. pub. in Venice, I 540. Bt:SH ROMERO, P., Under the Waters qf 1Vlexico, Carlton Press, Mexico City 1964. CHAMBERLAIN, R. s., The Conquest and Colonization of Yucatan, 1517-1550, Carnegie Institution, Washington, D.C. 1948. CHACNc, H. AND r. CHACNC, Siville et t At/antique 1504-1650, 8 vols, SEVPEN, Paris 1955-1957. FERNANDEZ DE NAVARRETE, :M., Colecci6n de los viages J' descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los espanO/es desde nes de/ siglo XV, 5 vols, lmprenta Real, Madrid 18.5-18.9. HARRISSE, H., The Discove,y of North America, N. Israel, Amsterdam 1969. Orig. pub. 1892. IRVING, w., Vyages and Discoveries f the Companions f Columbus, Philadelphia, PA and London 1831. KEITH, D. H. ct al., 'The Molasses Reef \Vreck, Turks and Caicos Islands, B.W.I: A Preliminarv Report', I]NA 13 (1984) 45-63. KEITH, D. H. and J. J. SLWMONS, 'Analysis of Hull Remains, Ballast and Artifact Distribution of a 16th-Century Shipwreck, Molasses Reef,British West Indies', ]FA 12 (1985) 411-424. KE'JPERS, R. T. w., 'Haquebuts from Dutch Collections', Journal qf the Arms and Armour Socie(y I l.2 (1983) 56-89. LINK, M. c., see Ch. .. �ICCLYMONT, J· R., Vicente Anez Pinf6n, London 1916. MORISON, s. E., The European Discove_;' of America: The Southern Voyages, New York and Oxford 1974. �Portuguese Vyages to America in the F[fteenth Century, Cambridge, MA 1940. OLDS, n., Texas Legacy from the Guf. A Report on Sixteenth-Centu_y Shipwreck Materials Recovered from the Texas Tidelands, Texas Antiquities Committee, Austin 1976. PALACIO, G. DE, Instrucci6n nautica para navegar, Mexico City 1587. PETERSON, M., 'Exploration of a 16th-Century Bahaman Shipwreck', f·lational Geographic Society Research Reports, 1967 Prqjects, Washington, D.C. 1974, .31-4.. -'<'reck Sites in the Americas', in Underwater Archaeogy: A l'Jascent Discipline, UNESCO, Paris 1972. -'Traders and Privateers Across the Atlantic: 1492-1733', inBass, G. F. (ed.), A History of Seafarin,,, London and New York 1972, .54-280. ROSLOFF, J, and J, B. ARNOLD rrr, 'The Keel of the San Esteban (1554): Continued Analysis', IJNA 13 (1984) 287-296. SAUER, c. o., The Eary jpanish Main,Berkeley, CA 1966. CHAPTER FOUR Basque Whalers in the New World ARNOLD, J. B. III and R. s. WEDDLE, see Ch. 3. BARKHAM, s., 'Finding Sources of Canadian History in Spain', Canadian Geographic (June 1980) 66-73. BARKHAM, s. and R. GRENIER, 'Divers Find Sunken Basque Galleon in Labrador', Canadian Geographic (Dec. 1978) 60-63. BELANGER, R., Les Basques dans I'istuaire du Saint Laurent, Montreal 1971. CCMBAA, s. L., 'Right ,'hales: Past and Present', Proc. of Workshop on the Status of Right Whales. Internal. Whaing Commission, Boston, June 1983 (Cambridge, MA 1986) 187-190. DALEY, T. and L. MURDOCK, 'Polysulide Rubber and Its Application for Recording Archaeological Ship Features in a Marine Environment', IJNA 10 (1981) 337-342. �'Underwater Molding of a Cross-section of the San Juan Hull', Proc. of the ]COM Waterloged Wood Working Group Conference, Otta1va 193! (1982) 39-40. GAIZTARRO, M. c., Los Vascos en la Pesca de la Ballena,Bibliotheca de Autores Vascos, San Sebastian I 960. GRENIER, R., 'Excavating a 400 year oldBasque Galleon', NG (July 1985) 58-68. GRENIER, R. and J. TCCK, 'A 16th-centuryBasque Whaling Station in Labrador', Scientic American 245 no. 5 (Nov. 1981) 180-188. JACQCES, B., Navires et gens de mer a Bordeaux (vers 1400-vers 1550), Appendices, Ecole Pratiques des Hautes Etudes, Vle section, Centre des Recherches Historique, SEVPEN, Paris 1968. LEBLANC, G. 'Sur les traces desBasques', Qu6bec Science 22, no. 11 (July 1984) 17-24. PROL'LX, J-P., 'La PCche a la baleine lans l'Atlantique Nord jusq'au milieu du XIXe siCcle', Etudes en Archeologiei Architecture et Histoire, Pares Canada, Ottawa (1986) 1-118. RINGER, R. J., 'Progress Report on the Marine Excavation of theBasque Whaling Vessel San Juan (1565): A Summary of the 1982 Field Season', Research Bulletin .06, Parks Canada, Ottawa (1983) I-.0, -'Sommaire des fouilles archtologiques subaquatiques effcctutes a RedBay en saison de 1984', Bulletin de Recherche .48, Pares Canada, Ottawa (1986) 1-20. ROSS, L., Sixteenth-Centy Spanish Basque Coopering Technogy: A Report of the Staved Containers Fotmd in 1978- 9 on the Wreck of the Whalinx Galeon San Juan, Sunk in Red B_y, Labrador 1 1565. Manuscript Report no. 408, Parks Canada, Ottawa 1980. STEVEN, E, w., 'Underwater Research at RedBay, Labrador: A Summary of the 1981 Field Season', Research Bulletin 194, Parks Canada, Ottawa (1983) 1-14. -'Rapport d'Ctape sur les fouilles sous-marines a RedBay, resumC saison 1983', Bulletin de Recherche 240, Pares Canada, Ottawa (1986) 1-16. STEVEN, E- w' and P. WADDELL, 'Marine Archaeological Research at RedBay, Labrador: A Summary of the I 985 Field Season', Research Bulletin 258, Environment Canada (1987) 1-1.. \VADDELL, r., 'The Pump and Pump Well of a 16th Century Galleon', IJNA 14 (1985) 243-259. -'The Disassembly of a 16th Century Galleon', []NA 15 (t986) 137-148. CHAPTER FIVE Treasure Ships of the Spanish Main Spanish Shippinx ANDREWS, K. R., The Spanish Caribbean. Trade and Plunder l!30~1630, New Haven 1978. AR1TKANO, GERVASIO DE, La arquitectura naval espanOla, Oliva de Vilanova,Barcelona 1920. FERNANDEZ DURO, c., Armada espaiola desde la uni6n de los reinos de Castilla ' de Arag6n, 9 vols, Musco Naval, Madrid 1973. HARING, c. H., Trade and Navz'gation Between Spain and the Indies in the Time f the -lapsburgs, Cambridge, MA 1918. PARRY, J· H., The Spanish Seaborne Empire, New York 1966. WEDDLE, R. s. see Ch. 3. wooo, r., The Spanish Main, Alexendria, VA 1979. Spanish Ship1vrecks HORNER, D., The Treasure Galleons, New York 1971. NATIONAL GEOGRAHIC SOCIETY, Undersea Treasures, Washington, D.C. 1974PETERSON, �L, 'Traders and Privateers', see Ch. 3. -'Wreck Sites in the Americas', in Underwater Archaeolo': A Nascent Discipline, UNESCO, Paris 1972, 85-93. -The Funnel of Gold,Boston, MA 1975. -'Reach for the New World', 152 no. 6 (Dec. 1977) 728-744. 1554 Fleet ARNOLD, J· B. III, An Underwater Archaeological vlagnetometer Survry and Site Test Excavation Prject off Padre Island, Texas Antiquities Committee, Austin 1976. -'The Flota Disaster of 1554', in Arnold, J.B. III (ed.), Beneath the Waters of Time: Proceedings of the Ninth Conference on Undenvater Archaeoy, Texas Ant. Comm., Austin 1978, 25-.8. ARNOLD, J. B. III, and R. s. WEDDLE, see Ch. 3. DAVIS, J, L., Treasure, Peoplei Ships and Dreams, Texas Ant. Comm., Austin 1977. HAMIL TON, D. L., Conservation of Metal OlJects from Undenvater Sites: A Sttc!' in J.1ethods, Texas Ant. Comm., Austin 1976. MCDONALD, D. and J. B. ARNOLD 111, Documentaz-y Sources/or the 1·�le1v Spain Fleet of 1554, Texas Ant. Comm., Austin 1979. OLDS, D. L., see Ch. 3. ROSLOFF, J, and J, B. ARNOLD ru, see Ch. 3. 1622 Fleet LYON, E, 'The Trouble with Treasure', NG 149 no. 6 (June 1976) 787-809. -The Search for the Atocha, New York 1979. MATHEWSON, D. III, /!1·coaeo1,wc,a1 Treasure: The Search/Or the l-Tuestra Sen�ora Atocha, Seafarers Heritage Library, Woodstock, VT and Key ,'est, FL 1983. La Concepci6n BORRELL, r. J., IistoriaJ' rescale de/ ;;ale6n J\Tuestra SenOra de la ConcepciOn, Musco de las Casas Reales, Santo Domingo 1983. EARLE, P., The Wreck of the Almiranta. Sir William Phips and the Hispaniola Treasure, London 1979. GRISSIM, J·, The Lost Treasure of the Concepci6n, New York 1980. KARRAKER, c. I-I., The Hispaniola Treasure, Philadelphia 19 34. 1715 Fleet BL'RGESS, R. F. and c. J. CLAUSEN, Goldi Galleons and ArchaeologJ', New York 1976. CLAUSE", c. J., 'A 1715 Spanish Treasure Ship', Contributions qf the Florida State viuseum Social Sciences, no. 12, Gainesville, FL 1965. COCKRELL, w. A. and L. �n;RPHY, '8SL17: Methodological Approaches to a Dual Component Marine Site on the Florida Atlantic Coast', in Arnold, J.B. III (ed.), Beneath the Waters of Time: Proceedin;s of the J\linth Conference on [ ·ndenJ!afer 1 Further Reading Archaeolg y, Texas Ant. Comm., Austin 1978, 175-180. 'Drowned Galleons Yield Spanish Gold', NG 140 no. 1 (Jan. 1965) 1-37. WAGNER, K., -Pieces of ::..'i,ht: Recoverin, the Riches of a Lost Spanish Treasure Fleet, New York 1972. on an Early 17th Century Shipwreck Lost in 1609', If,\-c1 JI (1982) 333-347. CHAPTER SEVEN r733 Fleet Bl;RGESS, IL F., (1974) 66-7r. 'Saga of the San Jose', Oceans 1 -Thy Found Treasure, New York 1977. MEYLACK, M., Diving to a Flash qf Gold, Garden City, NY 197r. Guadalupe and Tolosa BORRELL, P. J., Arqueologfa submarina en la Republica Dominicana, Musco de las Casas Realcs, Santo Domingo 1980. PETERSON, M., Century Ship, and an Abortive Salvage 1\ttempt', .JFA 1 (1974) ro9--116. WINGW00D, A. J·, 'Sea Vent1re. An Interim Report 'Graveyard of the Quicksilver Galleons', NG 156 no. 6 (Dec. 1979) 85-876. Portuguese Shipping BOXER, c. R., The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 14r;-1825, New York 1969. DIFFIE, a. w. and G. n. wrNrcs, Foundations qf the Portuguese Empirei 141;-1580, Minneapolis, MN 1 977· J., Sh1p1vreck and Empire, Being an Account of Portuguese Maritime Disasters in a Century of Decline, Cambridge, MA 1955. oeFFY, Sacramento GUILMARIN, J, F. Jr, 'The Guns of the Santfssimo Sacramento', Technolg y and Culture 24 (1983) 559-601. PERNAMBUCAN0 DE MELLO, :., 'The Shipwreck of the Galleon Sacramento-1668 off Brazil', IJNA 8 (1979) 21 l-223. CHAPTER SIX The Thirteen Colonies ADAMS, J,, 'Sea Venture. A second interim report Part I', I]NA 14 (1985) 275-299. ALBRIGHT, A. B. and J· R. STEFFY, 'The Brown's Ferry Vessel, South Carolina', I/NA 8 (1979) !21-142, BAKER, w.A., The Mqylmver And Other Colonial Vessels, London and Annapolis, MD 1983. DEAN, N., 'Manhattan's .Mystery Nierchant Ship', WoodenBoat 63 (1985) 96-100. EVANS, c.w., Some i\Totes on Shipbuildin, and Shipping in Colonial Virg,inia, Virginia 35oth Anniversary Celebration Corp., W'illiamsburg, VA 1957. FLEETWOOD, R., Tidecraft, The Boats of L01ver South Carolina and Georgia, Coastal Heritage Society, Savannah, GA 1982. GOLDENBERG, J· A., Shipbuiding in Colonial America, Charlottesville, VA 1976. HAMILTON, D. H., 'The City Under the Sea', 1986 Science Year (The \Vorld Book Science Annual), Chicago, IL 1986, 94-109. HARIU.JGTON, F., 'Strawberrv Banke: A Historic Xiaterfront Neighborhood',.Archaeology 36 no. 3 (1983) 52-59. HOLLY, H. H., Sparrow Ha1vk: A Seventeenth Cent1]' Vessel in TJlentieth CentH)' America, Pilgrim Society, Plvmouth, NIA 1969, and The American 1-/eptune 13 n�. l (1953). LAVERY, n. (ed.), Deane's Doctrine of 1\Taval Architecture, 1670, London 1981. MADDOCKS, M., Tht Atlantic Crossing, Alexandria, VA 1981. MORIS0K, s.E. , The Maritime Histo,y of lvlassachusetts 1783-1860, Boston, MA 1979. ROSL0FF, J· P., The Water Street Ship: PrefiminaJJ' AnalJiis of an Ez�hteenth-Century Merchant Ship, MA thesis, Texas A&M University 1986. SALISBURY, w. and R. c. ANDERSOK, A Treatise on Shipbtiling and A Treatise on Riging Written Abotd 1620-1625, Soc. For Nautical Research, London 195 8. SOLECKI, R. s., 'The Ti,er, An Early Dutch 17th Struggle for a Continent GARDNER, J,, 'Relics of "Ghost Fleet" arc Small Craft Bonanza', National Fisherman, Oct. 1966. HAMILTON, E. P., The French and Indian Wars, Garden City, NY 1962. -Adventure in the Wiclerness: The American Jounals of Louis Antoine de B01ganvil!e, Norman, OK 1964. KAL:VI, P., Travels into 1\rorth America, trans. by J. R. Forster, The Imprint Society, Barre, MA 1972. Orig. pub. in 1749. Krox, J ·, A Historical Journal of the Campaigns in llorlh America, 3 vols, Freeport, NY 1970. KRElJGER, J·, A. COHN, K. CRISMAN and H. MIKSCH, 'The Fort Ticonderoga King's Shipyard Excavation', The Bulletin f the Fort Ticonderoga Museum 14, no. 6 (!'all 1985). LAROCHE, o., 'Pas un, mais plusieurs bateaux sous le musee', L'Escale 5, no. 4 (May-June 1985). PARKMAN, F., Montcalm and Wofe, New York 1984. PR0CLX, G., Between France and -Jerv l'rance, Toronto and Charlottetown 1984. SULLIVAN, c., Lega�y of the Machault, Parks Canada 1986. ZACHARCHEK, w. and P. J. A. WADDELL, The Excavation qf the Macha1!t, Parks Canada 1984. CHAPTER EIGHT Gunboats and Warships of the American Revolution CHAPELLE, H. r., The History of American Saifin, Ships, New York 1935. COGGINS, J., Ships and Seamen of the American Revolution, Harrisburg, PA 1969. FORD, B. and D. SWITZER, UnderJlater Dig: The Excavation of a Revo!1tiona1J' War Privateer, New York 1982. G0LDEKBERG, J· A., Shipbuilding in Colonial America, Charlottesville, VA 1976. JAMES, w. M., The British Nal)' in Adversity: A Stuc' of the War of American Independence, London 1933. KNOX, D. w., The Naval Genius qf George Washin,lon, Boston, MA 1932. LCNDEHERG, P. K., The Continental Gunboat 'Philadelphia' and the Northern Campaign of 1776, Smithsonian Institution, W'ashington, D.C. 1966. MAHAN, A., The Major Operations of the 1\Javies in the War f American Independence, London 1913. MILLAR, J· F., American Ships qf the Colonial and Revol1tiona:y Periods, New York 1978. SANDS, J. o., Yorktonm' s Captive Fleet, Charlottesville, VA 1983. SYRETT, D., Shipping and the American War, 1775-8.' A Study of British Transport Organization, London 1970. CHAPTER NINE The War of 1812 BRANNAN, J·, Oicial Letters qf the j\Jilitmy and lTaval Oficers of the United States During the War JJlith Britain in the Years 1h21 1813, 1h4 1 and 1815, W'ashington, D.C. 1823. CAIN, E., Ghost Ships Hamilton and Sco1rge: Historical Treas1res from the War of 1812, Toronto and New York 1983, London 1984. CASSAV0Y, K. A., 'The Hamilton and the Scourge: A First Look', in Langley, S. B. M. and Unger, R. ,'. (eds), Nautical Archaeology: Pro,ress and Public R.e1ponsibility, 176-198, BAR, Oxford 1984. CASSAV0Y, K. A., B. PENNY and A. A-.ros, 'The Penetanguishene Naval Slip', in Skene, M. (ed.), Archaeological Research Report No. 13, 153--173, Ontario Hi1-torical Research Branch, Toronto 1980. 265 CHAPELL!-:, 11. r., Fhe His/OJ]' qf the American Sai!in, 1\,'avy, New York 1949. cRtS,1AN, K. )·, The Histo,y and Constr1ction qf the United Sta/ts S•hoo1ur Ticonderoia, Alexandria, VA 1983. --The Eagle, New England Press, Shelburne, VT, and The Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD 1987. CRCIKSHAKK, E. A., 'The Contest for the Command of Lake Ontario in 1814', Ontario ·Histo]' z 1 (1924) 99-160. Ct:MBERLAND, B., 'The Navies on Lake Ontario in the W'ar of 1812: Notes from the Papers of a Naval Oicer then Serving on His Majesty's Ships', Ontario Historical Society 8 (1907) 124-142. DCDLEY, w. s. (ed.), The Naval War of 1812: A Documenta0 Histmy, Naval Historical Center, Dept. of the Navy, \X1ashington, D.C. 1985. EVEREST, A. s., The War of 1812 in the Champlain Vally, Syracuse, NY 198r. HA"K.JAY, D., A Short Histo]' of the RYal 1-.Jay, vol. z, London 1909. H0PKII:S, F. and n. SHOMETTE, War on the Patuxent, 1814, Calvert Marine Museum, Solomons, MD 1981. KENNEDY, P. M., The Rise and Faff of the British J\Ja1.y, London 1 876. 1 The Pictorial Fieldhook of the War of 1812, New York 1868. MACD0NOCGH, R., Life of Commodore Thomas Macdonoughi U.S. Nary.•, Boston, MA 1909. LOSSING, B., NELSON, o. A., 'Ghost Ships of the War of 1812', NG 163 no. 3 (March 1983) 288-313. PRESTON, R. A., 'The History of the Port of Kingston', Ontario Iisto] 46 (1954) 202-211. ROOSEVELT, T., The Naval War qf 1812, New York l 882. ROSENBERG, M., The Bui!din, of Peny's Fleet on Lake Erie, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg, P\ 1974. STACEY, c. P., 'The Ships of the British Squadron on Lake Ontario, 1812-1814', Canadian Historical R.evie,v 34 (1953) 311-323. WOOD, w., The War Jith the United States, Toronto 1915. 1 CHAPTER TEN Steamboats on Inland Waterways ADAMS, R. M., et al., Survr-• of the Steamboat Black Cloud, College Station, TX 1980. AMBLER, c. H,, A Hiitory of Transportation in the Ohio Vall�y with Special R�f6rtfa to Its WatenV?J'S, Trade1 and Commerce from th, Earliest Period to the Present Time, Glendale, CA 1932. BALDWIK, L. n., The Kee/boat Age on Western Waters, Pittsburgh, PA 194r. BATES, A., The Western Rivers Steamboat C]clopoedi1m or American Riverboat Struct1re & Detail, Salted with Lore with a Nod to the J..odefmaker, Leonia, NJ 1968. BULLOCK, s., 'The "Miracle" of the First Steamboat', )01nal of American HistorJ' 1 (1907) 33-48. DA\'rsor, R. (ed.), The 'Phoenix' Prqject, Champlain Maritime Society, Burlington, VT 1981. DAYTOS, F. E., Steamhoat Dqys, New York 1925. DRAGO, 11. s., Th6 Steamboaters, From the Ear(y Side Wheelers to Bit Packets, New York 1967. FLEETWOOD, R., Tidecraft: The Boats of Lo1ver South Carolina and Georgia, Coastal Heritage Society, Savannah, GA 1982. FLEXNER, J· T., Steamboats Come Tme: American Inventors in Action, 1944; repr. Boston and Toronto 1978. GRAHAM, P., Sho1vboats: The Histo(y of an American Institution, Austin, TX 195 1. l!AITES, E. F., J· ::VIAK and G. M. WALTON, Western River Transportation: The Era of Ear!J Intenal Development, 18IO- 1360. St1dies in Historical and Political Science, Series 93 no. 2, Baltimore, MD 1 1975• HUNTER, L. c., 'The Invention of the Western Steamboat', Jounal qf iconomic Ifisto,J' 3 (1943) 202-220. .66 Further Reading - Stealhoa/s on the Western Rivers: An Iiconomic cmd Technolog,ica/ 1-fisto')', Cambridge, ,;I;\ 1949. IRION, J. B., AHhmoloyJcal TestinJ!, �f the Cm!fedtrafe Obstrncti011s, 1\1b28, AfobiU Iarhor, Alabama, Austin, TX 1985. LATROBE, J. f-L B., The First Jteamhoat V1?J'4,';e on the Western IVtiltn, \faryland Historical Society Fund Publication, no. 6, Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore, MD 1871. J ·, L,ake Carriers: The Sa/!,a of the Great Lakes Fleet - North America's Fresh Water 1erchant V!arine, Seattle, ''A 1977. urGENFELTER, R. E., Steamboats on the Colorado River, 1852-1916, Tucson, AZ 1978. LYTLE, w. M. and F. R. IIOLDCAYIPER, \1erchant Steam Vessels of the L'nited States 1790- -rt6t, ed. and rev. b y C. Bradford Mitchell, Steamship Hist. Soc. of America, Staten Island, NY 197 5. v!CDER'v!OTT, J· F . (ed.), B�/ore 1Wark T1vain. A Sampler of Old! Old Times on the llississippi, Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL 1968. \KDONALD, w. J·, 'The Missouri River and lts Victims', 1.Vlissouri Historical Review 21, no. 2 (1927). :v!ACMCLLEK, J·, Paddie-Wheel D_ys in Calfornia, Stanford, CA I 944. '!ERRICK, G. B., Old Times on the L'pper lississippi: The Recollections of a Steamboat Pilot from rt;4 to 1863, Cleveland, OH 1909. \H)RGAK, ;.s., Roher! Fulton, New York 1977. \fORRISOK� J· !-I., Histo')' of American Steam Navi,ation, New York 1958. l!YERS, D. P., 'The Architectural Development of the ,'estern floating Palace', Journal rd' the Socie)· �l E1rchitectural Historians 11, no. 4 (1952) 25-31. OREGON HISTORICAL SOCIETY, Steamboat D_ys on the Rivers, Portland, OR I 969. PETERSO:, w. J., 'Steamboating on the Missouri River', Io1va }0Nr11al o/ History 53 ( I 955) 97-120. PETSCHE, J· E., 'Uncovering the Steamboat Bertrand', 1\'rbr1.rka Histor7 � r, no. 1 (r970). - -The Steamboa/ 'BertraJd': History, E'xcavation, and Architecture, National Park Service Publications in Archaeology 1r, ,'ashington, D.C 1974. PRAGER, F. D., The /l111ohio.,rapf) of John Fitch, American Philosophical Soc., Philadelphia, PA LESSTRAS:G, 1 1976. A Chronologfral listoJJ' of the Ori,il and Development of Steam \'aPi,afio,r, Philadelphia, PA 1883. PCRYEAR, r. A. and:. WI-..:FIELD Jr, Sandbars and StermPhultrs! Steam .\'avi!,ation on the Brazos, College Station, TX r976. SWITZER, R. R., 'Munitions on the Bertrand', Archaeology 2�/4 (1972) 250-255. TAYLOR, G. R., The Tra,uportation Revo!11tio11 1tr;-1t60, Vol. IV in The Lconomic HislrJJJ' of the Cnited States, New York I 9 5 I. TCR�ER, R. n., Stermvheelers and Steam Tu!,s, Victoria, British Columbia 1984. TWAr..:, vL, Life on the Miuissippi, New York r 980. c.s. co:GRESS, HOCSE, PRESIDE!\T's :\!ESSAGE, Report of th� Board of En,,imers on the Ohio and Nlississippi Rivers ,\1ade in the Y,ar 1821, House Doc. 35, 17th Congress, 2nd Session, Serial Set No. 78, 1823. T \VAY, F. Jr, Pi!otin' Comes 1\ atural, New York and Toronto 1943. PREBLE, G. H., CHAPTER ELEVEN The Civil War at Sea A\I'v!EN, D., The ,\"aJ' in the Civil War II. The Atlantic Coast, New York 1883. A�DERSON, B., �)' Sea and l�y .inr, New York 1962. BEARSS, . c., Hard.J"k Ironclad, Baton Rouge, LA 1966. BEERS, 1-1. P. , Guide to the Archives of the Government of th� Con/edera!e States of America, National 1\rchivcs.and Records Service, X- ashington, D.C. 1968. and \V. � Jr, W1y the Smtih Lost tJe Civil War, Athens, BERINGER, R. E., II. IIA"[TAWAY, A. JO'\ES STILL Gt\ 1986. 'The Alligator, First Submarine of 1 The Civil X, ar', :.S. i\ atJa! l11stit11!� Proceedint.s 64 (June 1938) 843 854. BCLLOCK, J. D., Tb" Secret Service of the Confederate States in E,1rope; EimJJ the Confederate Cruisers IFere LqNipped, 2 vols, New York 1884. CARSE, R., Blockade: The Civil /Var at Sea, New York 1958. C.OCHRA:, IL, 3/ock.ade Runners rf the Con/edera�y, Indianapolis and New York 1958. DALY, R. w. (ed.), /lhoard the L'SS Florida: 1t63-6J, United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, i/ID 1968. -- (ed.), Aboard the USS Monitor: 1J62, United Stares Naval Institute, Annapolis, MD 1964. r IIOBART-HAv[PTo:.:, A. c., I\ ever Cau,ht, 1.ondon BOLA:\DER, L. 11., 1867. c., The Civil War at Sea, 3 vols, New York r960-r962. LESTER, R. r., 'The Procurement of Confederate Blockade Runners and Other Vessels in Great Britain During The American Civil X'ar', 1\1ari11ers' Mirror Gr (1975) 255-270. MACBRIDE, R., Civil War Ironclculs, Philadelphia, PA, JONES,'. 1962. J., Great Britain and the Confederate i\av} lt61-1864, Bloomington, lN 1970. YIILLER, E. \L, CSS Aifonitor, The Ship that Lmmched a vlodern l'\:tl�)', Annapolis, MD 1978. �ff:\DE�, K. w. and 11. P. BEERS, G11ide to Federal /lrchives Relatin, to the Civil War, National Archives and Records Service, \'fashington, D.C. 1962. PARKER, CAPT. w. IL, Recol/uli011s q/ a 1\·aval Ujicer 1t41-136;, New York 1883. r PEAKE, J·, Rudiments of i\ ava! Architecture: or, An Expo.ritiof of the Practical Principles of the Science in its ApplfratiOf to Naval Construction; Co,piltd for the 's" of B,t/1tfers, London r 8 5 1. PERRY, ,,1. F., If1r11i Nlachines: The sto:y of Co_f�deral" S11bmarim and 1.\1i11e Wa:/are, Baton Rouge, LA 1965. PRICE, M. w., 'Ships that Tested tbe Blockade of the Carolina Ports, 1861--1865', The American �\:eptune 8 lt-:RII, F. (1948) r96-24r. 'ndenvater Warfare in the 1ge of Sail, Bloomington, IN 1978. SCHARF, J. T., The HisfoJ' of the C01!federate States .Va)'froM Its Or,anization to the S11rrender qf Its Last Ve.r.rel, 2 vols, New York 1887. SE�IMES, R., Serµice Aloat: The Remarkable Career of the Coffederah Cmisers'Sumter' and'Alabama\ During the War Behveen the States, New York 1900. .SOLEY, ;. R., The 1\'a�J' in the Civil War I. The BWc.qdt and the CrKi.rers, New York 1883. STILL, w. r, Jr, Iron Afloat: The StoJJ' �/ the Confederate Armorciads, Columbia, SC 1985. c.s. D.PART11E:T OF THE ;AvY, Civil War lJronoio;'! 1861-1t6J, Govt Printing Ofice, X·ashington, D.C. 1971. YA:'DI'ER, F. (ed.), Confederate Blockade Running Thro11,h Bermttda, 1861-rk6;; Letter and Car,o 1\1a11ifests, Austin, TX 1957. -(ed.), 'The Capture of a Confederate Blockade Runner: Extracts from the Journal of a Confederate Naval Oficer', 1\'orth Carolina Historical Review 21 ROLAND, A., (1944) IJ6-IJ8. qfjicia/ Records rl the Lnion and COlfedtralt i'avies in the War qf Rehel/ion, 30 vols, Govt Printing Oice, X'ashington, D.C. 1894---1922. WATTS, G. P. Jr, Investi,atin, the Remains of the i ·ss \1fo11itor: A l;ina! Report 011 1979 Site Testin, in the Nlonitor' ,\'ationa! ,\1arine Sanctlla!J', I;orth Carolina Division of Archives and History, X'ilmington, NC 1982. WAR OF TlE REBELL!O:-: 1 CHAPTER TWELVE The End of the Age of Sail The Rise o/ New York Port, r8r5--1t60, New York 1939. --.S'qJtart-R(�ers on Schedule, Princeton, NJ 1938. ---(ed.), }\'ava! and vlaritime I-Iisto�-y: /111 Annotated ALBIOK, R. G., Hihliograpl!)', Marine Historical Association, Mystic, CT 1972. AI.B[Ot;, R, G., '. A. BAKER and B. w. I.ABA.EE, ;\'eJ hn,land and the Sea, \liddlctown, CT 1972. ALI.EK, n. E., The Wi11jja1J1mers, Alexandria, VA 1978. A:\!ERICAN l"EPTCNE, TIIE: ,1 .Qllarter(y JoJr11al �/ vfaritime E-listrJJy. Peabody Museum of Salem, Salem, NIA 1941-pre5ent. ASHLEY, c. w., '/'he Yankee Wheller, Boston, MA 1926. BAKER, w. A., The I-f1,im-PoJJtrtd Vessel: From Padd!e-f/hee!er to N11clear Ship, New York 1965. BE:\SON, !L vI., Stec1mships afd lvfotor.rhips of the West Coast, New York I968. BRADLEE, F. B. c., Some Account rl Steam Navixation in 1\'eiv f�ngia11d, Essex Institute, Salem, MA 1920. BROl:WJ(R, 1'. J ., International Re!,ister _f Historic Ships, Annapolis, MD r 98 5. BRYA:'JT, s. w., The Sea and the States: A 1\1aritime l-list01J' �/ the American A.erchant Marine 19 j o. CHAPELLE, H. 1., The American Fishing ,frhoo11trs, 1825-1935, New York 1973. -American Strili"�� Cr,jt, 'e\l/ York 1936. --American J.a/1 Saili11g Craft: Their Desixn, Development and C01strJ1ctio1, New York 1951. -The Baltimore Clipper: Its Origi11 and Deve!opmmt, 1arine Research Society, Salem, MA 1930. --see Ch. 8. -The iTationa/ Watercraft Collection, Smithsonian Institution, X·ashington, D.C. 1960. --The Search ]or Speed under Sail, New York 1967. CLARK, A.w., The Clipper Ship Era: /ln pitof, o/ the Famous American and British Clipper Ships . rt43-1J69, New York 1910. :t:TLER, c. c., z.·ive 1lundred Sailing Records of American Built Ships, Marine Historical Association, Vlystic, CT 1952. -Gr�yh01mds of th" Sea: The Stmy �/ the American Clipper Ship, U.S. Naval Institute, Annapolis, \-ID 1930. -Queens qf the Western Ocean: The StOJJ' _f America's Alai! and Pa.rst!(,er Sailing Lines, L' .S. Naval Institute, Annapolis, NlD 1961. DALZELL, G. w., Tb, Flight from the 1:/ag: The CMtinJ1ifJ. Iiffect of the Civil War on the Alerfra,1 Canyin,� Trad,, 1940. now, G. F ., What Ships and Whalin.,, Marine Research Society, Salem, MA 1925. Dt:GA�, J., The Great Iron Ship, New York 1953. Dt:NBACGH, E. L, The Era _f the .f_y Line: A Sa,a rf Steamhoatin, m1 Long Island Sound, X'estport, CT 1982. EV:\IERS0'-1, G. s., The Greatest Iron Ship: S.S. Great !�astern, Newton Abbot, England and North Pomfret, VT n.d. FAIRBCRl\", w. A., /vlerchant Sail, 6 vols, Fairburn Marine Educational foundation, Center Lovell, ME 1945-55. E., TJe Steamship Great Britain, Bristol Branch of the Historical Association, Bristol I 965. -The Steamship 'Great Westen': The First Atlantic Liner, Dursley, England n.d. FASSETT, F. G. (ed.), The Shiphuildin, Business in the United States of America, 2 vols, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, New York 1948. GIBBS, J. A., Ship})recks of tht Pacijic Coast, Pon land, OR 1957. GOODE, G. B., The Fisheries and FishinJ, Industries of the [ :nited States, 8 vols, Govt Printing Ofice, ,'ashington, D.C. 1884-87. GREGOR, 1-1., The S.S. Great Britain, New York 1971. m-:GARTY, R. B., Addendum to 'StarbJ1c.' cmd Wha/i"�� A·Iasters', New Bedford free Public Library, New Bedford, MA r 964. HO:KIKG, c., Dfrtiola()' qf Disasters at Sea dNrin<� the Ate of Steam ... 1t24-1962, 2 vols, Lloyd's Register of Shipping, London 1969. f-JOWE, o. T. and F. c. 11ATTIH'.WS, American Clipper Ships rJ'33-rt5t, 2 vols, Marine Research Society, Salem, .lA 1926--27. IIOWLA\D, s. A., Steamhoat Disasters and Railroad Accidents in tJe c·1ited States, X'orccster, .!11\ 1840. FARR, G. 1 Sources of Illustrations HCGI-IES, T., York 1973. The Blue Rihand qf the Atlantic, New IICNTRESS, K. G., A Checklist qf Narratives qf Shiplrecks and Disasters at Sea to rJ6o, Ames, IA 1979· -Narrativu qf Ship1vrecks and Disasters1 1586-1860, Ames, IA 1974. JOHNSTON, P. F., The Ne1v Iint/and Fisheries: A Tr6as.11rt Greater than Cod, Peabody Museum of Salem, Salem, MA 1984""-et al., A Sportdiver's Handbook for Historic ShtpJJrecks: Tools and Techniques, Northeast Marine Advisory Council, Durham, NH 1982. -Steam and the Sea, Pcabodv Museum of Salem, Salem, MA 1983. KE'\IBLE, J· H. (ed.), Gold Rush Stecuners, Book Club of California, San Francisco, C\ 1958. -Side-Wheelers Across the Pacific, San Francisco Museum of Science and In<lustrv, San Francisco, CA 1942. LEAVITT, J· F., Wake of the Coasters, Mystic, CT 1970. LLOYD's REGISTER OF SHIPPING, London 1764-present. u:nnoCK, A. B., The Down Easters! American Deep Water Sailin., Ships1 1869--1929, Boston, MA 1929. --The 1Jitrate Clippers, Boston, MA 1932. LYTLE, w. M. and F. R. HOLDCAVfPER, see Ch. 10. MCADAM, R. w., The Old Fall River Line, New York 1955. MCFARLAND, R., A Histy qf the New England Fisheries, New York 1911. MCKAY, R. c., Some Famous Sailing Ships and Their Builder, Donad McKay, New York 1928. MCNAIRN, J, and J· MACMCLLEN, Ships of the Red1vood Coast, Stanford 1945. MADDOCKS, l'-1., . The Atlantic Crossin<�' Alexandria, VA 1981. -The Great Liners, Alexandria, VA 1978. !v!AGINNIS, A. J., The Atlantic p·eny: Its Ships, Men and WorkinJ:s, London 1900. MARINim's MIRROR, THE Societv for Nautical Research, London 19 I r-prese�t. VIARSHALL, o., California Shipwrecks: 1.-ootsteps in the Sea1 Seattle, 'Y/A I 978. �UH.IS, w. E., Sail and Steam on the 1\Torthern Cal{fornia Coast, 1850--1900, San Francisco National Maritime i\lLtscum Association, San Francisco, CA 1983. vtATTilEWS, F. c., American Merchant Ships 1850-1900, 2 vols, Marine Research Society, Salem, Mi\ i93o--31. �{ORISON, s. E., see Ch. 6. �,IORRIS, E. P., The Fore-and-Aft Ri., in America: A Sketch, 'ew Haven, CT 1927. PARKER, H. and F. c. BO\VEN, Mail Passen,er Steamers of the Nineteenth Cmt111y, Philadelphia, PA n.d. PARKER, w. J· 1.., The Great Coal Schooners of 1Vew En,land1 1870-1909, Marine Historical Association, Mystic, CT 1948. JUDGJ',LY-NEVITT, c., American Steamships on the Atlantic, Newark, DE 1981. sv!ITH, E. w., Passen,ger Ships qf the World, Past and Present, Boston, MA 1978. SAIITH, M. H., An fhrpr,tivt Stufy qf the Collection Recovered from the Stor,.rbip 1Jiantic', National Trust for Historic Preservation and National Maritime Museum Association, San Francisco, CA 1981. SPRATT, H. P., One Hundred Years of Transatlantic Steam Navi,1fiow, 1838-1938, London 1938. -Outline Histo]' of Transatlantic Steam �NaJigatiow, London 195o. -Transatlantic Paddle Steamers, Brown, Son & Perguson, Glasgow 1967. STARBCCK, A., History of the American Whale F'ishery from its Earliest Inception to the Year 1876, 'w'altham, MA 1877. STORY OF YANKEE WHALING, THE, New York 1959. TOD, G. M., The Last Sail down East, Barre, MA 1965. WEBB, w. H., Plans qf Wooden Vessels . . . Bttilt h.J' Wiliam H. Webb in th, i)' o/ New York . r840-r869, New York 1895. WHIPPLE, A. n. c., The C!tpper Ships, Alexandria, VA 1980. �The Whalers, Alexandria, VA 1979. 1 EPILOG BALLARD, R, D., 'A Long Last Look at Titanic', NG 170 (Dec. 1986) 698-727. �'Epilogue for Titanic', NG 172 (Oct. 1987) 454-463. BALLARD, R. n. and J.-L. VIICHEL, 'How \X'e Found 267 Titanic', .,; 168 (Dec. 1985) 696--719. nAsco,.r, w., The Crest �f the Wave, New York 1988. -Deep Water, Ancient Ship.r, Garden City, J:Y 1976. BASS, G. F., 'The Men X'ho Stole the Stars', Sea listoy 12 (Fall 1979) 30. --,.'Marine Archaeology: A Misunderstood Science' in Borgese, E. M. and N. Ginsburg, (eds.), Ocean Yearhook 2, Chicago I 980, I 37- I 52. -'A Plea for Historical Particularism in Nautical Archaeology' in Gould, R. A. (ed.), ShipJreck Anthropoloy, Albuquerque 1983, 91--104. --'The Promise of Underwater Archaeology in Retrospect', Museum (UNESCO) 137 (1983) 5-8. -'Archaeologists, Sport Divers, and Treasurc Hunters', ]FA 12 (1985) 256-25 8. CHAMBERLAND, n., 'Titanic: Target of Opportunity', U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, vol. 1 r 3/8/1014, Annapolis, Maryland (August 1987) 56-63. DAVIS, SIR R. II., Deep Divin, and Submarine Operations: A Lvlanual for Deep Sea Divers and Compressed Air Workers, parts I & II, 5th edn London 1951. FORSBERG, G., Salvage from the Sea, London and Henley 1 977. GORES, J· N., Marine Salva.,e: The Gnfor,iving Business �f 1Vo Cure, 1\Jo P_y, Garden City, NY 1971. KOSTER, o. A., Ocean Salvage, New York 1971. ::vrACINJIS, J. n., 'Exploring a 140-year-old Ship Under Arctic Ice', NG 164 (July 1983) 104A-104D. MADDOCKS, M., 'A Litany of Disasters on the Devil Sea' in The Great Liners, Alexandria, VA 1978: 114-141. MOSCOW, A., Collision Cottrse: The 'Andrea Doria' and the 'Stockholm', New York 1959. SEARLE, w. F. and F. R. Bt:SBY, Prepared Testimony in Htari,rg Bfore the House i.erchant Vlarine and Fisheries Co.Mittu on H.R. 327� The Titanic Llaritime ivlemorial Act of r985, 29 October 1985, Serial No. 99-21, Govt Printing Ofice, -'ashington, D.C. 1986, 87-107. SHEPARD, B., Lore q/ the Wrecker.r, Boston, MA 1961. THROCKMORTO-K, P. (ed.), The Sea Remembers: Shipwrecks and Archaeoloy', New York 1987 (pub!. in England as Histor7 from the Sea: Shipwrecks and Archaeoloi!J', London 1987). Sources ofIllustrations TITLE PAGE Canada. PhoIO D. Page. Courtesy Parks INTRODUCTION Maps by Hanni Bailey. CHAPTER ONE 1 Department of Library Services, American Wluseum of Natural HistorY. 2 P 1 38008, Public Archives Canada. Photo A. Low. 3 Department of Ethnography, ;"ational Museum of Denmark. Photo T. Krabbe. 4 Courtesy Florida Department of Natural Resources. 5 Cleveland Museum of Natural History. 6 Courtesy Terence Grieder. 7, 8 Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum, London. 9 Royal Ontario vluseum, Toronto. 10 British Library, London. rr After Indian Art of the United States by F. Douglas and R. D'Harnoncourt (New York 1948). 12 Pho!O Margaret Leshikar. 13 Photo Janice Rubin. 14 Carnegie Institute of Washington. 15--17 Courtesy Tikal Project, The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. 18 Photo Norman Hammond. 19 Musco Nacional de Antropologia, Niexico. 20 Photo Margaret Leshikar. 21 Musco del Oro, Banco de la Rcpublica, Bogota. 22 From Lienzo de Tlaxcala, /lntig11edades Nlexicana (facsimile, 1892). 23 Drawn bv Tatiana Proskouriakoff. Peabody Museum, Harvard University. Photo H. Burger. 24 Drawn bv Julio C. Burgos. Musco Antropologico, Banco c'enrral de! Ecuador, Guayaquil. 25 Nfuseo P. Regional de Arqueologia, Arica. Photo courtesy Callwey Verlag, /Iunich. 26 Rautenstrauch-] ocst Muscum, Cologne. 27 ,'oodcut of 156 5. 28 University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. Photo Max Uhle. 29 After A. Baessler, Ancient Penvian Art (1903). 30 Museum for VOlkerkunde, Hamburg. 31 Courtesy Parks Canada. Model by D. Colwell. Photo T. Lackey. 32, 33 ,? Viking Ship Museum, Roskildc, Denmark. Photo G. Schantz. CHAPTER TWO 1 From Pedro de Medina, L'arte de navegar (Venice I 555). Photo The John Carter Brown Library. 2 Prins Hendrik Maritime Museum, Rotterdam. Drawn by BjOrn Landstr6m. Courtesy International Book Production, Stockholm. 3 From the Atlas qf Porto/an Charts by Vesconte Maggiolo (Naples 15 II). Pho!O The John Carter Brown Library. 4 From the Boke qf Idro,raphJ· by Jean Rotz (1542). PhoIO The John Carter Brown Library. 5 Chicago Historical Society. Photo C. D. Arnold. 6 Drawn by ML Design. 7 Photo KC Smith. 8 From the !solaria by Benedetto Bordoni (1534). 9 Photo KC Smith. ro Photo R. C. Smith. 11 Photo KC Smith. 12 ivluseo Navale di Pegli, Genoa. 13 Photo KC Smith. 14 Courtesy Institute of Nautical Archaeology. Photo Bruce Thompson. CHAPTER THREE 1 Musco Naval, ,vladrid. Photo Luis Dorado. 2 BihliothCque Nat ionalc, Paris. 3 Photo George Eastman House. 4 From the Instmcci6n nautica by Diego Garcia de Palacio (Mexico City 1587). Photo The John Carter Brown Library. 5 Courtesy Texas 1\ntiquities Committee. Photo J. Jenkins. 6, 7 Courtesy Texas Antiquities Committee. 8 Corpus Christi Museum, Texas. 9 After Texas Antiquities Committee. 10-14 Courtesy Texas Antiquities Committee. 15 Photo KC Smith. 16 Photo R. C. Smith. 17, 18 Photos D. D. Denton. 19 Photo R. F. Marx. 20 Photo Susan Samon. 21 Photo KC Smith. 22 Photo Smithsonian Institution. 23 After J. J. Simmons. 24 After J. J. Simmons. 25, 26 Photos D. D. Denton. 27 After D. H. Kei1h and J. J. Simmons. 28 After D. H. Keith. 29 After J. A. Duff and J. J. Simmons. 30 Photo S. Hoyt. 31 Photo M. D. Myers. 32, 33 Courtesv Institute of Texan Cultures of the Cniversiry of Texas at San Antonio. 34 Drawn by D. f1. Keith and J. J. Simmons. Courtesy Institute of Nautical Archaeology. 35 After J. J. Simmons. Map (p. 66) After D. H. Keith. CHAPTER FOlJR 1 After W. Stevens. 2 Drawn by P. Waddell and J. Farley. 3 Drawn by W. Stevens and C. Piper. 4 Photo R. Chan. 5 John R viands Universitv Librarv of .Manchester. 6 P;inting by Abraham Spe�k. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. 7 Photo R. Chan. Courtesy Parks Canada. 8 Photo D. PagC. Courtesy Parks Canada. 9 Courtesy R. Grenier. 10 Photo D. PagC. Courtesy 26 8 Sources of Illustrations Parks Canada. II, 12 MusCe de la Marine, Paris. 13 Drawn by R. Hellier. 14 Photo P. Waddell. 15 Drawn by S. Laurie-Bourgue. 16-18 Photo D. PagC. Courtesy Parks Canada. 19 Drawn by R. Hcllier. 20 Photo D. PagC. 21-23 Drawn by C. Piper. 24 Photo R. Chan. 25 Drawn by I/. Stevens and C Piper. 26 Photo M. Gingras. 27 Photo R. Chan. Courtesy Parks Canada. 28 Photo D. PagC. Courtesy Parks Canada. CHAPTER FIVE 1 Bibliothegue Nationale, Paris. 2 British Library, London. 3 Photo Farley Sonnier. 4, 5 After J. J. Simmons. 6, 7 Courtesy Texas Antiquities Committee. Drawn by J. Rosloff. 8 Institute of Maritime History and Archaeology, Bermuda Maritime Museum. 9 Photo Bermuda Maritime Museum. 10 Drawn by Toni Hepburn. Courtesy Jim Miller. II Seventeenth-century engraving. 12 Drawn by Simon S. S. Driver. 13 Musco Naval, Madrid. 14, 15 Courtesy Pedro J. Borrell. 16 Courtesy Florida Bureau of Archaeological Res�arch. 17 Detail of a map from A Concise 1\ratural History of East and West :1orida by Bernard Romans, New York r 775. British Library, London. 18 Courtesy Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research. 19 Drawn by James B. Levy. Courtesy Florida Division of Historic Resources. 20 Courtesy Pedro J. Borrell. 21 : National Geographic Society. Photo Jonathan S. Blair. 22 Courtesy Pedro J. Borrell. 23 Courtesy Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research. 24, 25 Drawn by Toni Hepburn. Courtesy Florida Division of Historic Resources. 26 Courtesy Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research. 27, 28 Courtesy Florida Division of Historic Resources. Photos R. C. Smith. 2)--3' After U. Pernambucano de Mello (l]NA vol. 8 no. 3, 1979). CHAPTER SIX 1 Drawn by ML Design. 2, 3 The Science Museum, London. 4 Courtesy Plimoth Plantation, Plymouth, MA. 5-7 Courtesy Sea Venture Trust. Plan by Jon Adams. 8 After J. Adams. Courtesy Sea Venture Trust. 9 Courtesy Sea Venture Trust. 10 Courtesy of the Pilgrim Society, Plymouth, MA. II Photo Alan Albright. 12 Courtesy Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of South Carolina. 13 Detail from View�( the camp of.John Law's concession at Ne1v Biloxi, Louisiana, 1720. Newberry Library, Chicago. 14 Courtesy Plimoth Plantation. Photo Ted Avery. 15 Broadside, London 1692. 16--18 Courtesy Institute of Nautical Archaeology. 19 Photo Shirley Gotelipe. 20�22 Courtesy South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Photos Gordon Brown. 23, 24 Drawn bv Darbv Erd. Courtesy South Carolina Institute �)f Archaeology and 1\nthropology. 2 5 Photo Gordon Brown. 26 Photo Alan Albright. 27, 28 Courtesy Jamestown Festival Park. 29 Courtesy the Master and Fellows of Magdalene College, Cambridge. 30 Drawn by J. R. Steffy. 31, 32 Photos J. R. Steffy. 33 Photo Gordon Brown. 34 The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. 35 The Mariners' Museum. Photo Robert Adams. 36 Photo G. X'atts. 37 The \fariners' Museum, Photo Robert Adams. CHAPTER SEVEN 1 The New-York Historical Societv, NY. 2 Basin Harbor Maritime Museum, Verm(;nt. 3 Photo Kenneth Garrett. 4 Courtesy SocictC lmmobiliCre du Quebec and the Quebec Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 5 Courtesy Fort Ticonderoga Museum. 6-8 Courtesy K, Crisman. 9 National Geographic Society. Photo David r; Arnold. 10, II Drawn by K. Crisman. 12, 13 Basin Harbor Maritime Museum, Vermont. 14 Virginia Canals & Navigations Society. Photo w'. E. Trout. 15 Archaeological Society of Virginia. Photo L. E. Browning, 16 BibliothCque Nationale, Paris. 17 Yale University Art Gallery, Mabel Brady Carvan Collection. 18 Roval Ontario Ivluseum, Toronto. 19~22 Drawn by k. Crisman. 23, 24 Drawn by S. Cooper. 25, 26 Drawn by K. Crisman. 27, 28 Fort Ticonderoga Museum. Photos John Butler. 29 Courtesy Parks Canada. 30 C r 33 19, Public Archives, Canada. 31 National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa. CHAPTER EJGHT 1 New York Public Librarv. 1. N. Phelps Stokes Collection. 2 DAR Museum,, W'ashington, D.C. 3 W'indsor Castle, Royal Library. © Her Majesty The Queen. 4·-6 Smithsonian Institution, NMAH. 7, 8 Photos Carroll and Philip Voss. 9 Virginia Division of Historic Landmarks (VDHL). Photo R. \dams. 10, II VDHL. Photos John D. Broadwater. 12 The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. 13, 14 Drawn by Peter Hentschel. Courtesv Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA). 15 Drawn by Cynthia Orr. Courtesy INA. 16 Maine State Jvfuseum, Augusta. 17 Drawn by Sheli Smith. Courtesy INA. 18 The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. 19 Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore, 20 National Portrait Gallery, London. 21, 22 The vfariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. 23 The Science Museum, London. 24 Newberry Library, Chicago. 25 National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. 26 Virginia Division of Historic Landmarks. Photo John D. Broadwater. 27, 28 VDHL. Drawn by John D. Broadwater. 29 VDHL. Drawn by David Hazzard. 30 VDHL. CH,\PTER NINE 1 Yale Universitv Art Galler-, Mabel Brady Garvan Collection. 2 uSs Constitutio� Museum Foundation, Boston, MA. 3-5 Library of Congress, W'ashington, D.C. 6 Drawn by ML Design. 7 Klein Associates. Courtesy Canada Centre for Inland \X/aters and the Royal Ontario Nluseum. 8, 9 Courtesy Hamilton-Scourge Project. 10 Courtesy K. Crisman. II Historic Naval and Military Establishments, Pcnetanguishene, Ontario. 12 Courtesy K. Crisman. 13 C 794, Public Archives, Canada. 14 Drawn by K. Crisman. 15 Courtesy K. Cassavoy. 16 � 1983 National Geographic Society. Photo Emory Kristof. Courtesy Hamilton-Scourge Project. 17 Courtesy Hamilton-Scourge Project. 18 f� r983 National Geographic Society, Photo Emory Kristof. Courtesy Hamilton-Scourge Project. 19, 20 Drawn by K. Crisman. 21 Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. 22 Historic Naval and Militan· Establishments, Penetanguishene, Onta;io. 23 Engraved by B. Tanner after H. Reinagle. 18 r6. 24•-26 Drawn by K. Crisman, 27 Courtesy Ontario Archives. 28 Historic Naval and Militarr Establishments, Penetanguishene, Ontario. 29 Drawn by K. Crisman. CHAPTER TEN 1 New Jersey Historical Societr, Alofsen Collection. 2 American Societr of Nlcch;nical Engineers, New York. 3 New York State Historical Association, Cooperstown, N.Y. 4 American Society of Mechanical Enginers, New York. 5 Peabody Museum of Salem, MA. 6, 7 Drawn by K. Crisman. 8 The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. 9 w'ood engraving, 1858. 10 National Archives, \Xlashington, D.C. II Robert D. Turner, B.C. Provincial Museum, Victoria. 12 From llarper's Weekly, 1888. 13 Photo R. \L Adams. 14, 15 Dra�n by D. f-l. Keith. 16 Drawn by J. J. Simmons, 17 Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County. 18 Courtesv DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fi;h and Wildlife Service. 19 Anglo-American Art Museum, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. Gift of Mrs Mamie Persac Lusk. 20-25 Courtesy DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 26 f� National Geographic Society. Photo John Fulton. 27 Photo KC Smith, 28 Champlain Vlaritime Society and the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation 198 r. 29 Louisiana Collection, Tulane University Library. CHAPTER ELEVEN 1, 2 Photo G. Watts. 3 The 1Iariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. 4 After G. W'atts. 5 National Archives, Washington, D.C. 6 From Harper's Weekly, 1863. 7 North Carolina Division of Archives and History. 8 Drawn by J. Jannaman, North Carolina Division of Archives and History. 9 Photomosaic U.S. Navy. 10 Photo G. -'atts. II Drawn J. Jannaman. and History. North Carolina Division of 12 National Archives, W'ashington, D.C. 13, 14 National Park Service, Vicksburg. Photo W'illiam ,'ilson. 15, 16 National Park Service, Vicksburg. 17 New Hanover County Niuseum. 18 Photo James A. Pleasants. North Carolina Division of Archives and History. 19 Merseyside County Museums, Liverpool. 20 Drawn by Julie Melton. Program in Maritime History and Underwater Research, East Carolina University. 21, 22 Courtesy Sam Margolin. 23 The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, V /\. 24 National Archives, X'ashington, D.C. 25--28 James -1 X1oodruf Confederate Naval Museum, Columbus, GA. 29 Drawn by Kaea Morris, Tidewater Atlantic Research. 30 Photo X:esley K. Hall. 31 From The I/las/rated London Ne1vs, 1862. J2 Courtesy Hall \{tatters. 33 National Archives, X1 ashington, D.C. 34 Courtesy Nlrs Thomas Godet, Hamilton, Bermuda. 35, 36 Photos KC Smith. • CHAPTER TWELVE 1-4 Peabody Museum of Salem. 5 Courtesy Maritime Heritage Prints, Boston. 6 Courtesv The Bostonian Society, Photo Peabody Museum ·of Salem. 7 Courtesy S�ow Squall Project. 8 Peabody Museum of Salem, Francis Lee Higginson Steamship Collection. 9 Museum of the Citv of New York. 10 National Maritime Museum: Greenwich. II Photo Associated Press, 12 National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. 13-15 National Maritime Museum, San Francisco. 16, 17 Peabody Museum of Salem. 18 George Eastman House. 19 \Ictropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 20-22 Peabody Museum of Salem. 23 Courtesy James P. Delgado, National Park Service. 24 Mystic Seaport f,i[useum. 25 Peabody ,1useum of Salem. 26 Courtesv Howard X:righ/ 27 Peabody Museum of Salem.' 28 Courtesy Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities. EPILOG 1 National Geographic Society July I 983. Photo Kristof. 2 Dr Owen Beattie/University of Alberta, 3 J: X'oods Hole Oceanographic Institution, v1A. 4 X'oods Hole Oceanographic Institution, MA. &) X'HOl & [FREMER. 5 Drawn T. Gravemaker. 6 From The Illustrated London 4 August 1956. 7 C The Doria Project. Photo Mark Schreyer. Courtesy Oceaneering International. 8 Oficial U.S. Navy Photograph. 9 Collection CSS National Park Service. Drawn by Jerry

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