19. Pastoral Letters: 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus - Augsburg Fortress
19. Pastoral Letters: 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus - Augsburg Fortress
19. Pastoral Letters: 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus - Augsburg Fortress
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<strong>19.</strong> <strong>Pastoral</strong> <strong>Letters</strong>:<br />
1 <strong>Timothy</strong>, 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>, <strong>Titus</strong><br />
paul’s letters to <strong>Timothy</strong> and <strong>Titus</strong> have been designated the “<strong>Pastoral</strong> <strong>Letters</strong>”<br />
since the eighteenth century. They were accepted and cited as genuinely Pauline by<br />
early Christian writers, but for two hundred years scholars have debated their authenticity.<br />
Lately the debate has ebbed, with the great majority of scholars thinking the<br />
issue has been decided: all three are considered inauthentic, at best a later and derivative<br />
testimony to genuine Pauline theology. Some scholars persist in thinking that<br />
conclusion to be somewhat hasty. Even those who are not absolutely convinced that<br />
the letters come directly from Paul find unconvincing many of the reasons given for<br />
assigning their composition to a later Pauline forger.<br />
Since these are letters and not narratives, a decision concerning their authenticity<br />
affects our picture of Paul’s ministry, our understanding of the development of Paulinism,<br />
and, most importantly, our reading of the letters themselves. Even though this<br />
debate already dominates scholarship on these writings and threatens to obscure their<br />
distinctive and individual witness to early Christian experience and interpretation, a<br />
consideration of the issues can nevertheless lead to an appreciation of the special character<br />
of these canonical writings.<br />
There are strong tendencies in the debate, and it is helpful to note them at the outset.<br />
The first tendency derives from the primary and positive place most scholars<br />
accord Paul among NT writers. He is, after all,“the apostle.” Scholars often want to find<br />
in him that which confirms their perceptions of “genuine” Christianity, and consider<br />
inauthentic those elements that contradict these perceptions. Those who regard the<br />
heart of Paul, if not of the whole NT, to be the teaching of righteousness through faith<br />
tend to reject the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s as moralizing. On the other hand, those committed to traditions<br />
within which doctrine, church structure, and the inspiration of Scripture are<br />
important, tend to find these elements in the undisputed as well as the <strong>Pastoral</strong> letters.<br />
They are, consequently, inclined to regard the latter as genuine also. Thus, the issue of<br />
authenticity is directly correlated with the reconstruction of the “authentic” Paul:<br />
scholarship is not fully determined by bias, but we do tend to read Paul in our own<br />
image and out of our own particular theological context.<br />
A second tendency also derives from Paul’s place as the earliest and most prominent<br />
Christian writer. A judgment against authenticity of any letter means for some a<br />
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judgment on its value as well. They implicitly measure the worth of a writing by its<br />
authorship, rather than by its content or its place within the community’s canon. The<br />
tendency is found on both sides of the debate. Some fight the authenticity of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s,<br />
thinking such a recognition would inevitably mean as well an acceptance of<br />
their teaching. Others defend their authenticity for the same reason. These tendencies<br />
complicate the making of good literary and historical judgments.<br />
A third tendency in the debate does not come from bias but is an inevitable result<br />
of categorization: the three letters are invariably treated together as a group. Characterizations<br />
of “the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s” are typically drawn from all three letters coalesced into a<br />
whole, while the individual characteristics of the respective letters are overlooked. The<br />
<strong>Pastoral</strong>s are often said, for example, to contain an elaborate ecclesial structure. But<br />
2 <strong>Timothy</strong> lacks any reference to order at all, and <strong>Titus</strong> contains only a trace. Reference<br />
is also made to “the opponents in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s,” even though there is a distinct profile<br />
in each of the letters. Such generalizing dulls the perception of the individual letters,<br />
heightening a sense of their isolation from the rest of the Pauline corpus. A similar<br />
effect would result from treating the Thessalonian correspondence as a separate group<br />
without ever referring them to other Pauline writings. But if <strong>Titus</strong> is read with other<br />
travel letters, or 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> with other captivity letters, their otherness is greatly<br />
diminished.<br />
Even when such tendencies are taken into account, the <strong>Letters</strong> to <strong>Timothy</strong> and<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> raise unique and difficult questions for every reader. No one denies that they represent<br />
a strain of Paulinism. They are written in his name, and seek to communicate<br />
teaching which is recognizably Pauline. But in each letter there is also just enough<br />
divergence from any reader’s instinctive perception of what is Pauline, that even those<br />
most sympathetic to their authenticity must wonder at this blend of the familiar and<br />
the strange so erratically distributed over three documents.<br />
Factors To Be Considered<br />
The Writings of the New Testament<br />
Since the issues are so complex, a full discussion is impossible, but each criterion for<br />
determining genuineness is touched upon in what follows. The first issue is their placement<br />
in the scheme of early Christian history and the Pauline mission. Although the<br />
letters lack obvious anachronisms, some find it difficult to fit them into Paul’s career<br />
such as it can be reconstructed from Acts and the other letters. First <strong>Timothy</strong> and <strong>Titus</strong><br />
presuppose Paul’s active ministry among his churches. In 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>, Paul has left his<br />
delegate in Ephesus for a time while he goes to Macedonia (1 Tim. 1:3); <strong>Timothy</strong> is to<br />
attend to affairs until Paul’s return within a short period (3:14). In principle, such a<br />
letter could have been written any time during Paul’s lengthy Aegean ministry. <strong>Titus</strong> is<br />
written to Paul’s delegate in Crete (<strong>Titus</strong> 1:5). Paul’s whereabouts are not revealed. He<br />
plans to winter in Nicopolis (3:12), which could be any of several cities of that name.
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That there should be a church in Crete is not surprising. The account in Acts, however,<br />
places Paul there only tangentially, and then as a prisoner (Acts 27:7-15). Could he<br />
have had the opportunity to found churches or to commission a delegate to found<br />
them? The phrase “I left you in Crete” is also ambiguous. Did Paul take his leave of<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> there? Or did Paul leave <strong>Titus</strong> in an assignment?<br />
Second <strong>Timothy</strong> is written from (probably a Roman) captivity (1:16-17). But does<br />
Paul’s reference to a first defense (4:16) indicate that this is a second imprisonment,<br />
since he was released from the first (4:17)? In contrast to l <strong>Timothy</strong> and <strong>Titus</strong>, 2 <strong>Timothy</strong><br />
contains information about fifteen of Paul’s helpers (4:9-21). Nothing in their<br />
movements directly contradicts the little we know of them elsewhere, although some<br />
scholars have great difficulty with the apparent discrepancy between Acts 21:29 and<br />
2 Tim. 4:20 in the matter of Trophimus. Other information is startlingly confirming,<br />
such as the short remark “Erastus remained in Corinth” (4:20; cf. Rom. 16:23).<br />
The problem is rendered more difficult by the attempt to place all the letters in the<br />
same time frame. The following options are possible. Some think the letters are pseudonymous<br />
and written at the same time after Paul’s death. The biographical information<br />
in this case only serves the interest of pseudonymity and is thus irrelevant. A<br />
second option invokes the ancient tradition (cf. 1 Clem. 5.7) that Paul was released<br />
from a first Roman imprisonment and preached in Spain before again becoming a<br />
captive and finally being put to death. Supporters argue for a period of active work<br />
between the two imprisonments, such as is reflected in these letters. A third option is<br />
to regard the letters as genuinely Pauline and to try to fit them into Paul’s ministry as<br />
we know it from Acts and the other letters. This is not impossible, although it requires<br />
considerable ingenuity.<br />
A fourth option is the best, though rarely chosen. It admits that neither Acts nor<br />
the letters give us a full chronology of Paul: Acts gives us only a selective and highly<br />
stylized rendering of Paul’s travels, while the letters provide only fragmentary bits and<br />
pieces of information. Thus, while the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s do not by themselves account for<br />
their placement in his life, they may give us important information about incidents in<br />
Paul’s career and captivity that the other sources do not. Just as 2 Corinthians tells us<br />
of imprisonments we would otherwise not suspect, so do these letters tell us of Pauline<br />
missionary endeavors—in Crete and Dalmatia—that, aside from the tantalizing reference<br />
to Illyricum in Rom. 15:19, would otherwise be unknown to us.<br />
The criterion of style is difficult to apply to the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s. They obviously contain a<br />
large number of words not found in other Pauline letters and share other terms not<br />
otherwise attested in the NT. But there are also real differences among the three letters.<br />
On the whole, 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> has a vocabulary remarkably close to that of other Pauline<br />
epistles, whereas the terminology in 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> and <strong>Titus</strong> varies more significantly.<br />
How much of this special vocabulary is due to the nature of the letters, the character<br />
of the addressees, and the subject matter is difficult to determine. Unlike the genuine<br />
Pauline letters, there is no indication that the letters were dictated to a scribe, although
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the use of an amanuensis cannot be ruled out. Since a large amount of the vocabulary<br />
of 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> and <strong>Titus</strong> is found in the NT elsewhere only in Luke-Acts, Luke has been<br />
proposed as the amanuensis (2 Tim. 4:11) or even the author of the letters.<br />
More than vocabulary is involved in stylistic analysis. The syntax of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s is<br />
generally smoother than in letters like Galatians and Romans. Sentences are longer and<br />
more regular; the use of particles is less varied and rich. Yet, one must ask how much<br />
the style of Romans and Galatians is itself affected by the adoption of the diatribal<br />
mode in those letters. If the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s are compared to 1 Thessalonians or Philippians,<br />
the differences are less extreme. The issue of style is further complicated by the fact<br />
that the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s do not reveal a consistent “hand,” as do Colossians and Ephesians.<br />
Rather, the mixture of vocabulary and sentence structure is complex and varied. Some<br />
have even suggested that the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s may contain fragments of authentic Pauline<br />
notes, worked up later into new pseudonymous compositions. But the close correlation<br />
of “non-Pauline” passages with the subject matters unique to the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s has<br />
largely gone unnoticed. This is a significant oversight since it is precisely the difference<br />
in subject matter that most clearly separates these three letters from the rest of the<br />
Pauline corpus. Finally, on the issue of style, one should also recall the significance of<br />
“writing in character” (see chap. 10): the style of a letter is adapted to the persona a<br />
writer adopts for the sake of creating persuasive letters. This rhetorical phenomenon<br />
further complicates the reading of the evidence.<br />
One of the early reasons for questioning the genuineness of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s was the<br />
nature of the opponents or heresy they attack. It was thought to be a form of “gnosis”<br />
(see 1 Tim. 6:20)—unknown until the second century—that believed the resurrection<br />
life had already been accomplished (2 Tim. 2:17-18), scorned marriage, advocated<br />
physical asceticism (1 Tim. 4:3, 8), and was interested in the practice of Jewish law<br />
(1 Tim. 1:7; <strong>Titus</strong> 3:9). This picture is of course a composite of the three letters. Even<br />
as such it does not preclude Pauline authorship, for there is nothing in this mix not<br />
already encountered in the undisputed letters (cf., e.g., 1 Cor. 8:1-3; 15:17-19; Gal. 4:8-<br />
10; 1 Cor 7:1; cf. Col. 2:20-22). The composite sketch, however, ignores the real differences<br />
between the letters themselves, each of which is internally consistent and need<br />
not be read in light of the others. Some object further that the manner of responding<br />
to the opponents is typically un-Pauline, since it relies on polemic rather than on refutation.<br />
This is slightly inaccurate, since 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> does clarify theological points several<br />
times (1:8; 4:3-5, 7-8; 6:5-10), and the genuine Paul is not immune from the use<br />
of slander against rival teachers (cf. 2 Cor. 11:13-15; Gal. 5:12; 6:13; Phil. 3:2). What is<br />
distinctive in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s is the amount of polemic, its largely stereotypical character,<br />
and the literary function it performs in 1 and 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>.<br />
A major challenge to the authenticity of the letters is made on the basis of church<br />
organization. Here, it is claimed, there is not merely a shift in emphasis, such as making<br />
Christ the head of the body (as in Colossians) but an entirely different outlook.<br />
The organic sense of the church is lost, replaced by an organization—the “household
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of God”—that has a hierarchical ministry of bishops, presbyters, and deacons,<br />
together with orders of deaconesses and widows. Such attention to structure, it is<br />
thought, results from a “routinization of charism” when eschatological expectations<br />
diminish and the church grows accustomed to being in the world and adapts to its<br />
ways. Others see here a defensive reaction against a popular Paulinism that was more<br />
radically egalitarian, such as one finds in the Acts of Paul and Thecla. The <strong>Pastoral</strong>s, on<br />
this reading, arise from a situation like that found in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch<br />
(ca. 115) in which a monarchical episcopate and hierarchical order are understood to<br />
be essential for the well-being of the church (see Ign. Eph. 2.2; Magn. 3.1; Trall.<br />
2.2; 3.1).<br />
Such conclusions move well beyond the evidence of the letters themselves. First, it<br />
is inaccurate to speak of the church order of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s, since there is none in 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>,<br />
and the little found in <strong>Titus</strong> does not match precisely the fuller account in 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>.<br />
Second, what organization is spoken of is not elaborate. It corresponds rather<br />
well, in fact, to what we know of the synagogal structure of Diaspora Judaism in the<br />
first century, as well as to the structure of the religious and social associations prevalent<br />
in the ancient Greco-Roman world. Early Christianity did not develop in a<br />
vacuum; it naturally adopted and adapted pre-existing institutions. Third, the organizational<br />
structure is not legitimated in these letters, that is, it is neither theologically<br />
defended nor interpreted, unlike the case in the Ignatian letters. Fourth, the letters do<br />
not prescribe a particular order but presuppose it; they contain not job descriptions<br />
for new positions but moral and mental qualifications for those who are to fill established<br />
places in the church. Fifth, sociological studies of intentional communities in<br />
every era suggest that they do not survive for decades without strong structures for<br />
decision making and social control: a great time lapse between the birth of a community<br />
and the establishment of structure is thus counterintuitive: structure and charism<br />
frequently coexist. Sixth, the undisputed letters of Paul not only refer by title to the<br />
offices found in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s (bishops and deacons, Phil. 1:1; woman deacon, Rom.<br />
16:1), but explicitly recognize the role of authority figures in specific communities (cf.<br />
1 Cor. 16:15-17; Gal. 6:6; Col. 4:17; 1 Thess. 5:12). Seventh, the attention that is given<br />
to organizational matters in two of these letters owes a great deal to the nature of the<br />
writings and the identity of the addressees.<br />
The most telling objection to the authenticity of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s is the criterion of theology<br />
and ethics. Even when full credit is given to Paul’s wide range in these areas,<br />
some elements in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s appear to be marginal. Common Pauline terms such as<br />
“faith,”“law,” and “righteousness” occur, but all with slightly different nuances. “Law”<br />
appears as something that can be used “lawfully” (1 Tim. 1:8), “faith” seems less an<br />
obedient response to God than the common body of conviction and commitment<br />
(<strong>Titus</strong> 1:1; 1 Tim. 5:8) or, simply, a virtue (2 Tim. 2:22). “Righteousness” (dikaiosynē)<br />
does not signify a state of right relation with God but denotes a virtue in the Greek<br />
sense of “justice” (1 Tim. 6:11; 2 Tim. 2:22). Tradition is a deposit of truth that is to be
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The Writings of the New Testament<br />
protected (1 Tim. 6:20; 2 Tim. 1:12-14) rather than a process of transmission (1 Cor.<br />
11:2, 23; 15:3). Christology emphasizes the role of Jesus as Savior (2 Tim. 1:10; <strong>Titus</strong><br />
1:4; 3:6) and his coming “appearance” (1 Tim. 6:14; 2 Tim. 1:10). It must be said that<br />
each one of these elements can be found somewhere in the undisputed letters, but<br />
never in this concentrated combination. Therein lies the difference and the problem.<br />
A similar point can be made about ethical teaching. There is certainly nothing<br />
explicitly like Paul’s command in 1 Corinthians 7 to live in the world “as though not.”<br />
Here, the attitudes and aptitudes of household members are appropriate as well to the<br />
life of the community as a whole. The Pauline note of conscience (syneidēsis) appears,<br />
not in terms of weak and strong (cf. 1 Cor. 8:7-12) but of “good” (1 Tim. 1:5, 19) and<br />
“pure” (1 Tim. 3:9; 2 Tim. 1:3) in contrast to “soiled” (<strong>Titus</strong> 1:15) and “cauterized” (1<br />
Tim. 4:2). Here, too, is the contrast between “healthy teaching” (1 Tim. 1:10; 6:3; 2<br />
Tim. 1:13; 4:3; <strong>Titus</strong> 1:9; 2:1) and “sickness” (2 Tim. 2:17; 1 Tim. 4:2), expressing itself<br />
in a life of virtue (1 Tim. 1:10; 3:2-4, 11; 4:13; 2 Tim. 2:22, 24; 3:10; <strong>Titus</strong> 1:7-9; 2:7)<br />
and vice (1 Tim. 1:8-10; 2 Tim. 3:2-5; <strong>Titus</strong> 3:3).<br />
Listing these elements is easy; evaluating them is more difficult. Appeal to the outlook<br />
of an aging apostle is of little help, and an assumed shift to a second generation<br />
of Paulinist Christians seems inadequate. The issue is complicated by the supposition<br />
of uniformity in Pauline Christianity: one must be careful about assuming that every<br />
Pauline church looked the same; clearly each community would have had a unique<br />
context that shaped its experience and expression. Take the question of subject matter.<br />
The “household” theme, for example, is prevalent in Paul, but takes on a variety of<br />
forms and nuances depending on the community Paul addresses. Even appeals to the<br />
character of the language itself provide ambiguous evidence. These letters do have a<br />
more Greek and less “biblical” mode of presentation. Yet, before drawing conclusions,<br />
it is good to remember that the “biblical” style of Paul in Galatians and Romans is no<br />
more natural than his “Greek” style in 1 Thessalonians or Philippians. His style is<br />
affected by his subject matter, his audience, and the traditions upon which he was<br />
reliant.<br />
In fact, one of the solutions to the problem may rest precisely in these differences.<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> and <strong>Timothy</strong>, we recall, both have at least a partial Greek background, and both<br />
are portrayed in the role of teachers. These factors may help us locate the kind of language<br />
used in the letters addressed to them, particularly if we ask how Paul might have<br />
spoken and written to his more educated Hellenistic associates. The polished Greek,<br />
the moralizing tone, the specific subject matter treated, and the general tone and function<br />
of the letter may be determined less by the passage of time and more by the specific<br />
character and role of the delegates to whom Paul wrote.
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Accounting for the Correspondence<br />
Most scholars see the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s as the production of a “Pauline school” long after Paul’s<br />
death, perhaps as late as the mid-second century. Rather than real letters, the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s<br />
are considered a single literary composition in the form of fictitious correspondence<br />
in which biographical elements serve only to provide an air of plausibility. In this view<br />
the three letters together represent the beginning of church orders, a genre of documents<br />
that regulated church worship and ministry (e.g., the Didache, the Didascalia<br />
Apostolorum, and the Apostolic Constitutions). They were written as part of a conservative<br />
reaction within Paulinism, possibly reacting against the use of Paul by heretics<br />
who radically extended Paul’s ascetic tendencies. It has even been suggested that<br />
Polycarp of Smyrna wrote them as a weapon in his fight against Marcionism. Another<br />
suggested stimulus was the growing egalitarianism, especially among women, that<br />
threatened the stability of communities.<br />
The author of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s therefore sought to adapt the Pauline message for a new<br />
generation, emphasizing structure and order, while resisting ascetic and egalitarian<br />
excess. In the process, certain elements seem presupposed: a diminished eschatological<br />
expectation, a growth in church structure, and an increased accommodation to the<br />
world. In this view, the Paulinism of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s is refracted through the prism of second<br />
and third-generation concerns. Paul is a legendary hero whose authentic genius is<br />
diminished, reduced to being part of the “deposit” of faith for future generations.<br />
The obvious appeal of this reconstruction is attested by its many adherents. It provides<br />
for development and conflict within Paulinism. It suggests that the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s,<br />
with Acts and Ephesians, were part of the movement of “early Catholicism” that<br />
resisted Gnosticism while domesticating the more radical Paul of the authentic letters.<br />
This reconstruction has serious deficiencies. Even if the writing of epistolary<br />
pseudepigrapha soon after Paul’s death can be granted, the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s were accepted as<br />
genuine by the ancient church, in contrast to clearly Pauline counterfeits (3 Corinthians,<br />
Letter to Laodiceans, <strong>Letters</strong> of Paul and Seneca, Acts of Paul and Thecla) that were<br />
almost as universally rejected. A mid-second century dating must dismiss the allusion<br />
in Polycarp’s Letter to the Philippians (4.1) to 1 Tim. 6:7, 10, and reject the express<br />
statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion V. 21) that Marcion excluded the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s<br />
from his canon—both of which would seem to necessitate an earlier origin of the<br />
material.<br />
The common reconstruction falters most by failing to provide a convincing life setting<br />
for the production of three such similar yet quite different letters, and by paying<br />
too little attention to their self-presentation and literary form. It has been suggested,<br />
for example, that the letters were intended to rehabilitate a Paul fallen into disrepute<br />
because of his popularity among heretics. But Paul’s authority is never at issue in the<br />
letters; it is always assumed. Nor is specific attention given to his “image.” The suggestion<br />
also presupposes a consciousness of fine distinctions in doctrine such as exists
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only among scholars. For anyone seriously doubting or misplacing Paul’s worth, furthermore,<br />
it is unlikely that the rather banal material in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s would prove an<br />
effective antidote. Even in other scenarios, such as an orthodox leader like Polycarp<br />
creating and then distributing the letters as a Pauline discovery, there are problems.<br />
Besides being inconsistent with Polycarp’s situation such as we know it, this hypothesis<br />
makes us wonder why more use was not made of this creation by Polycarp himself.<br />
Moreover, would such a ploy be successful at a time when Paul was apparently a figure<br />
of controversy and rival communities were compiling their lists of acceptable and<br />
unacceptable writings on the basis of apostolic origin?<br />
Another suggestion places the letters’ production within a school setting in which<br />
the imitation of literary models took place. This is a sensible solution, since such<br />
schools were known to exist after the life of a founder. It would be a stronger suggestion<br />
if we could be as confident about the existence of such a school after Paul’s<br />
death as we are of its existence during his lifetime. However sensible, the suggestion<br />
is not altogether satisfying. If Pauline models were being imitated, why were letters<br />
not produced that imitated Paul’s correspondence to churches—as was most typical<br />
for Paul—rather than letters to individual delegates (only Philemon was addressed<br />
to an individual, and he was not a delegate)? Why were the style and form of the<br />
undisputed letters not followed more accurately? The fragment hypothesis is of little<br />
help here. It is hard to see why tiny autobiographical notes would be preserved in<br />
the first place, and then lifted into new compositions so clumsily. Further, if a<br />
pseudepigrapher had authentic fragments before him, why could he not imitate<br />
their style more convincingly? To complicate matters even more, the differences in<br />
style between the three letters themselves do not allow for simplistic theories of<br />
compositional imitation.<br />
An enduring difficulty for the conventional reconstruction is the presence of variety<br />
in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s. Why would three such letters be produced, each of which was<br />
directed to a situation that was internally consistent yet very difficult to match with the<br />
situations of the other two? Here we would have a forger subtly able to create the<br />
verisimilitude of an established community in Ephesus and a new church in Crete,<br />
together with the appropriate sort of directions to each, and yet not able to imitate<br />
more convincingly the available Pauline samples.<br />
No real progress will be made in the understanding of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s until they are<br />
restored to separate but equal status within the Pauline collection. It may well be, for<br />
example, that 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> can lay a far better claim to authenticity on every count than<br />
1 <strong>Timothy</strong>. The first sustained questioning of their authenticity applied initially only<br />
to 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>, and then only on the point of diction. The declaration of inauthenticity<br />
for all three has been a more recent development, largely resulting from the association<br />
of 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> and <strong>Titus</strong> with 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>. But it is theoretically possible, for example,<br />
that 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> is pseudonymous, based on an authentic 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>. Such possibilities<br />
must be entertained, although any particular configuration is difficult to prove.
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In the final analysis, it is difficult to make any assured claims about either the<br />
authenticity or the inauthenticity of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s as a whole or as individual letters.<br />
Yet, what we lose for our reconstruction of the “historical” Paul, we gain for the understanding<br />
of early Christianity: in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s we catch a glimpse of early Christian<br />
leadership, structure, and social world that might otherwise be unknown to us. Consequently,<br />
attention is appropriately directed to the literary self-presentation of each of<br />
the letters in turn and to their respective shaping of the Christian message within the<br />
Pauline tradition.<br />
Paul’s Delegates<br />
The letters are written to Paul’s most important delegates. We have repeatedly seen<br />
<strong>Timothy</strong>’s prominence within the Pauline mission: co-sponsor of five letters (see 2<br />
Cor. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1), he was Paul’s go-between with<br />
the Macedonian churches (see Acts 18:5; 19:22) of Thessalonica (1 Thess. 3:2) and<br />
Philippi (Phil. 2:19), as well as with the Corinthians (Rom. 16:21). According to 1 Tim.<br />
1:3, he played the same role for the Ephesian church. In Acts 16:1, he is said to have a<br />
Greek father, which would make it likely that he had some Greek education as well.<br />
From what Paul says of him in the undisputed letters, his special role and his place in<br />
Paul’s affections is obvious. When Paul wants the restive Corinthians to “imitate” him<br />
(1 Cor. 4:16), he adds (4:17):<br />
Therefore, I sent to you <strong>Timothy</strong>, my beloved and faithful child in the Lord, to<br />
remind you of my ways in Christ, as I teach them everywhere in the church.<br />
We notice here the role of memory and imitation, and the portrayal of <strong>Timothy</strong> as the<br />
“reminder” of Paul’s teaching and an example to a local community.<br />
Paul clearly anticipated that <strong>Timothy</strong> would be received in the same manner Paul<br />
himself would be (1 Cor. 16:10-11):<br />
When <strong>Timothy</strong> comes, see that you put him at ease among you, for he is doing<br />
the work of the Lord, as I am. Let no one despise him.<br />
When writing to the Philippians, Paul says of <strong>Timothy</strong> (2:19-23):<br />
I hope in the Lord Jesus to send <strong>Timothy</strong> to you soon, so that I may be cheered<br />
by news of you. I have no one like him, who will be genuinely anxious for your<br />
welfare. They all look after their own interests, not those of Jesus Christ. But<br />
<strong>Timothy</strong>’s worth you know, how as a son with a father, he has served with me<br />
in the gospel. I hope therefore to send him just as soon as I see how it will go<br />
with me.
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Finally, in 1 Thess. 3:2, Paul reports of <strong>Timothy</strong>:<br />
And we have sent <strong>Timothy</strong>, our brother and God’s servant in the gospel of<br />
Christ, to establish you in your faith and to exhort you, that no one be moved<br />
by these afflictions.<br />
There is a remarkable agreement between these random characterizations and the<br />
portrayal of <strong>Timothy</strong> in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s. He is a “beloved” (2 Tim. 1:2) or “genuine”<br />
child (1 Tim. 1:2). He is a “servant of God” (doulos; 2 Tim. 2:24; cf. same in Phil. 1:1,<br />
and diakonos in 1 Thess. 3:2). He is to “exhort” others (1 Tim. 6:2; 2 Tim. 4:2), and to<br />
“remind” churches of Paul’s teaching (2 Tim. 2:14), providing them an example of it<br />
(1 Tim. 4:12) even as he himself has an example to follow in Paul (2 Tim. 1:13).<br />
Two different but reasonable explanations can account for this evident agreement<br />
between the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s and the genuine letters. First, the letters accurately report<br />
Paul’s habitual perceptions of his delegate. Second, a pseudepigrapher had available<br />
to him the full range of such epithets when he drew up his imitation. The more<br />
important point, though, is that 1 and 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> present <strong>Timothy</strong> in a role that corresponds<br />
exactly to that explicitly given him in the undisputed letters: he is Paul’s<br />
troubleshooter.<br />
The undisputed letters tell us much less about <strong>Titus</strong>. He was of Greek origin (Gal.<br />
2:3), and Paul makes much of his not having to be circumcised when he accompanied<br />
Paul to Jerusalem (Gal. 2:1-3). Although this is speculative, he may be the <strong>Titus</strong> (or<br />
Titius) Justus whom Acts 18:7 refers to as a “God-fearer” and whose house Paul uses<br />
after leaving the synagogue. He is, in any case, a notable associate of Paul’s Corinthian<br />
ministry (2 Cor. 2:13; 7:6, 13, 14), especially Paul’s collection efforts (2 Cor. 8:6, 16, 23;<br />
12:18). He is not the representative of a local church but is Paul’s “fellow-worker”<br />
(koinōnos; 2 Cor. 8:23). He is not, however, pictured as being on intimate terms with<br />
Paul.<br />
The same sense is given by the Letter to <strong>Titus</strong>, in which he is called “genuine child”<br />
(<strong>Titus</strong> 1:4) but is not shown the sort of affection found in 1 and 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>. His duty<br />
in Crete may well also have included fund raising (see <strong>Titus</strong> 3:14). According to 2 Tim.<br />
4:10, <strong>Titus</strong> also worked in Dalmatia, which would fit within the broad range of the<br />
Pauline mission (cf. Rom. 15:19).<br />
In writing letters to delegates with such responsibilities, we would anticipate discussion<br />
of matters less appropriate for epistles written for community consumption.<br />
These could include: personal encouragement for the delegate’s difficult task of dealing<br />
with lively Pauline communities; reminders of the ideal one should follow; hostile<br />
dismissals of rival teachers; ad hoc directions concerning local leadership positions and<br />
structural conflicts. Rather than lengthy doctrinal treatises, we would expect only formulaic<br />
allusions. As a means of encouragement, we might envision a shaping of the<br />
gospel that emphasized its godliness (eusebeia), a Christology in which the coming
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“appearance of the savior” figured dominantly, and ethical teaching that stressed<br />
virtue and the avoidance of vice. No doubt many of these same aspects would have had<br />
further appeal to the reader immersed in the educative culture of the Greco-Roman<br />
world. Moreover, such letters would likely combine attention to the delegate’s personal<br />
disposition as well as to the attitudes appropriate to the office of teaching.<br />
As so often in the Hellenistic world, there were precedents for letters like these. Second<br />
<strong>Timothy</strong> can be read as a personal parenetic epistle, and 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> and <strong>Titus</strong> can<br />
be understood as mandata principis letters. The following analysis will therefore proceed<br />
on the basis of genre rather than canonical order.<br />
2 <strong>Timothy</strong>: A Personal Parenetic Letter<br />
Paul writes to <strong>Timothy</strong> from prison (1:16; 2:9; 4:16). Although he still has workers<br />
around him, he is sensitive to the apostasy of others (1:15; 4:10, 16). He struggles to<br />
proclaim the gospel (4:17) and to direct the mission through delegates (4:10-12) and<br />
correspondence (4:13). He faces active opposition himself (4:14). Thus, despite feeling<br />
close to death (4:6-8), Paul writes to encourage and admonish <strong>Timothy</strong> in his own<br />
struggles. The letter is dominated by its unswerving attention to <strong>Timothy</strong>. Whatever is<br />
said about others is sooner or later turned back to <strong>Timothy</strong>: “but you . . .” The most<br />
frequent verb form in the letter is the second-person singular imperative. Nothing new<br />
is being communicated to <strong>Timothy</strong>, only reminders of what he already knows,<br />
together with the exhortation to hold fast to it.<br />
Because we find here an aging, even dying, religious figure instructing his follower<br />
on the struggles to come and the need for perseverance, many who regard these letters<br />
as pseudonymous find the most appropriate literary category for 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> to be the<br />
farewell discourse, such as we find it in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs or even<br />
Acts 20:17-35. A more likely parallel, and one closer in content and function, is the<br />
personal parenetic letter.<br />
Rhetorical handbooks describe an epistolē parainetikē as a letter written to “exhort<br />
someone advising them to pursue something and to abstain from something.” The<br />
sample letter given by Pseudo-Libanius reads:<br />
Always be an emulator, dear friend, of the virtuous. For it is better to be well<br />
spoken of when imitating good individuals, than to be reproached by all for<br />
following evil ones.<br />
This short sample contains the elements of imitation and the antithetical expression<br />
of options: do this, avoid that. In actual parenetic discourses such as Pseudo-Isocrates’<br />
treatise To Demonicus, the form is followed exactly: the presentation of a model and<br />
appeal to memory (Dem 3–11) is followed by a series of moral maxims often expressed
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antithetically (12–49), and at the conclusion there is a re-presentation of models for<br />
imitation (50–51). So also in 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> we find the elements of memory, model, and<br />
maxims.<br />
This classification helps explain the polemic against false teachers. We are given little<br />
specific information about them, despite the naming of Phygelus, Hermogenes<br />
(1:15), Hymenaeus, and Philetus (2:17). They claim that the resurrection is already<br />
past (2:18), but apart from that, they are characterized mainly by their methods, which<br />
involve harsh disputation (2:16, 23) and the intellectual seduction of uneducated<br />
women (3:6), as well as their morals, which are obviously poor. Much of this takes the<br />
form of stereotypical slander, like that used by Hellenistic philosophers when attacking<br />
each other. Yet Paul never attacks them directly. His concern is for his delegate, and<br />
he thus alternates characterizations of them with direct commands to <strong>Timothy</strong>. The<br />
false teachers thereby become the negative model <strong>Timothy</strong> is to avoid. The same use of<br />
polemic can be found in protreptic (i.e., exhortatory) discourse addressed to wouldbe<br />
philosophers: slander establishes a counter-type to the ideal teacher (cf. Dio Oration<br />
77/78; Lucian Demonax; Epictetus Discourses III.22).<br />
Second <strong>Timothy</strong> has the overall form of a personal parenetic letter, with the elements<br />
of polemic being utilized to develop more fully what <strong>Timothy</strong> is to avoid. The<br />
structure of 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> therefore is: the presentation of Paul as a model (1:3—2:13);<br />
maxims for <strong>Timothy</strong> as a teacher, presented in contrast to the false teachers (2:14—<br />
4:5); and the re-presentation of Paul as a model (4:6-18).<br />
Paul, the Model for Teaching and Suffering (2 <strong>Timothy</strong> 1:3—2:13)<br />
The motifs of memory and model open the letter. In the face of the opposition and<br />
success of rival teachers, <strong>Timothy</strong> is encouraged to “endure,” particularly since his<br />
“father” Paul has little hope for release from prison. The thanksgiving typically anticipates<br />
Paul’s main point: he “remembers” <strong>Timothy</strong> (1:3), “remembers” his tears (1:4),<br />
and “remembers” the sincere faith he had learned from his mother and grandmother<br />
(1:5). When Paul adds, “...a faith, which I am sure, dwells in you” (1:5), he reveals his<br />
true emphasis: he clearly wants to “remind” <strong>Timothy</strong> of the qualities and dispositions<br />
to which he was called. He was not given a spirit of timidity (or, cowardice: deilia) but<br />
one of “power and love and self-control” (1:7). Paul wants to “stir up” in him (1:6) this<br />
gift of power and confidence, so he will persevere in his ministry. The prevalent early<br />
Christian motif of “endurance” and “steadfastness” in the midst of trials takes on a<br />
practical edge here in 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> (cf. James 1:12).<br />
Paul presents himself as a model for <strong>Timothy</strong>, who can find in him the “pattern of<br />
healthy teaching” (1:13). <strong>Timothy</strong> can preserve it, since it has been entrusted to him by<br />
“the Holy Spirit dwelling in us” (1:14). Paul is more than a source of proper teaching.<br />
He is the example of how to suffer for the gospel amidst adversity. <strong>Timothy</strong> is told,<br />
“Don’t be ashamed” of testifying to the Lord; he is to “take a share of suffering for the
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gospel” (1:8). Paul too had been appointed a “preacher and apostle and teacher” of this<br />
“good news” (1:11), and “therefore I suffer as I do, but I am not ashamed” (1:12). <strong>Timothy</strong><br />
should not therefore draw back because of suffering he may encounter for the<br />
“good news.” He is able to keep going because of God’s power (1:8), the indwelling<br />
Spirit (1:14), and the certainty of God’s promise (1:12).<br />
The mention of Onesiphorus in 1:15-18 is not beside the point. Because he provided<br />
help (“often refreshed me”) and did so despite Paul’s captivity, he provides <strong>Timothy</strong><br />
with another example: “He was not ashamed of my chains” (1:16). As Paul can<br />
look forward to a reward from God for his suffering (1:12), so he can pray, “May the<br />
Lord grant to him to find mercy from the Lord on that day” (1:18). <strong>Timothy</strong>, in other<br />
words, is not alone in “sharing the suffering” for the good news, and should take<br />
encouragement in that fact.<br />
The second aspect of <strong>Timothy</strong>’s role is suggested in 2:2. He is to entrust the “sound<br />
teaching” to others who in turn will be able to teach. <strong>Timothy</strong> is not only a Christian<br />
who lives the gospel and suffers for it. His suffering occurs precisely because he is a<br />
teacher of the “good news.” The focus therefore turns to his ministry of teaching, particularly<br />
regarding the attitudes he himself should have and should inculcate in others.<br />
Before turning to that role (2:14—4:5), however, Paul offers a series of models to<br />
which <strong>Timothy</strong> can look for encouragement. The advice,“Take your share of suffering<br />
as a good soldier of Jesus Christ” (2:3), suggests the first. The soldier, athlete, and<br />
farmer are all stock examples for exhortation in Hellenistic moral teaching (cf. 1 Cor.<br />
9:7-27). Paul here emphasizes their attention to duty. The soldier does not get distracted<br />
by extraneous affairs; the athlete competes by the rules; and the farmer works<br />
hard. Reward only follows upon this devotion: the soldier pleases his recruiter; the athlete<br />
receives the crown; and the farmer enjoys the first fruits of the crop (2:3-6).<br />
Paul saves his most important example till last: “Remember Jesus Christ, risen from<br />
the dead, descended from David, as preached in my gospel” (2:8). Once again, we see<br />
here the note of memory. Further, Paul specifies his gospel as “. . . the gospel for which<br />
I am suffering” (2:9). In fact, Paul endures suffering so that others might attain salvation<br />
(2:10). The implication is that Jesus likewise suffered and died, “so that life and<br />
immortality might be brought to light through the gospel” (1:10). Here, then, as in<br />
chapter 2 of Philippians, Jesus becomes the model par excellence for imitation. So Paul<br />
reminds <strong>Timothy</strong> of the “faithful word” (2 Tim. 2:11-13):<br />
If we have died with him we shall also live with him. If we endure, we shall<br />
reign with him. If we deny him, he will also deny us. If we are faithless, he<br />
remains faithful, for he cannot deny himself.<br />
The first three lines of this apparently traditional saying have perfect internal symmetry:<br />
as we are toward God, so God will be toward us. Suffering now with Jesus will<br />
bring glory later with Jesus; endurance will bring rule; denial, denial. But the final line
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is a surprise, and in it we find a typical Pauline emphasis: God is faithful despite<br />
human infidelity.<br />
As Paul offered the Philippians a series of examples of “life for others” that included<br />
Jesus and himself (Phil. 2:1—4:3), so here we find the same rhetorical technique. He<br />
provides <strong>Timothy</strong> with a series of concrete examples of suffering in the hope of reward:<br />
Onesiphorus, the soldier, athlete, and farmer; himself; and Jesus who suffered and died.<br />
The Ideal Teacher (2 <strong>Timothy</strong> 2:14—4:5)<br />
Paul fills out the model with maxims, set in a series of antitheses. The attitudes and<br />
actions of <strong>Timothy</strong> stand in contrast to those of the false teachers. They are given to<br />
disputatiousness (2:14) and godless chatter (2:16), which spreads like a gangrenous<br />
sickness (2:17). They have revolutionary impulses (2:22) and engage in senseless and<br />
useless quarrels (2:23). They are filled with all manner of vice (3:2-5). The opponents<br />
are charlatans (3:13) who prey on the uneducated and curious (3:6-7). They are like<br />
the magicians of Pharaoh’s court who opposed Moses, “men of corrupt mind and<br />
counterfeit faith” (3:8). <strong>Timothy</strong> and those he instructs (2:14) are to avoid such practices<br />
and people (2:14, 16, 22, 23; 3:5).<br />
In an intriguing rhetorical strategy, Paul uses a spatial imagery throughout this section.<br />
The opponents are always on the move: they “go from house to house” (3:6); they<br />
fall away and turn away (2:18); they “stand against” (3:8); and they “advance” (2:16;<br />
3:13). In contrast, <strong>Timothy</strong> is to “remain” (3:14) and “stand fast” (3:14; 4:2). Paul is<br />
using the opponents as a foil to develop the endurance theme for the faithful believer:<br />
the steadfastness of <strong>Timothy</strong> is viewed as a response to the “unsteady” behavior of the<br />
unrighteous.<br />
The end results will, according to Paul, justify his exhortation: although the opponents<br />
“make progress,” Paul assures <strong>Timothy</strong>,“they will not advance” (3:9). Such comfort<br />
is all the more welcome since the opponents are obviously enjoying considerable<br />
success. Paul characterizes these as the “last days,” when people will be “lovers of pleasure<br />
rather than lovers of God” (3:4). And it will only get worse. People will not even<br />
be willing to listen to sound teaching but will seek charlatans willing to shape their<br />
teaching to expectations (4:3). The fact that this behavior is indeed taking place in the<br />
present both confirms Paul’s claim that the “last days” are upon them and encourages<br />
<strong>Timothy</strong> to remain firm in the faith: because the end is near, steadfastness and<br />
endurance in the face of this opposition are all the more urgent.<br />
Against the tide of indifference and apostasy, Paul can only tell <strong>Timothy</strong> to remain<br />
steady, to endure suffering, and to fulfill his ministry (4:5). <strong>Timothy</strong> cannot cut truth<br />
to fit the season, but must remain constant (4:2):<br />
Preach the word; be urgent in season and out of season; convince, rebuke,<br />
exhort, be unfailing in patience and in teaching.
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<strong>Timothy</strong> can once more look to Paul as a model of such endurance in the face of<br />
adversity. Paul reminds <strong>Timothy</strong> (3:10-11):<br />
You have observed my teaching, my conduct, my aim in life, my patience, my<br />
love, my steadfastness, my persecutions, my sufferings, what befell me at Antioch,<br />
at Iconium, and at Lystra, what persecutions I endured; yet from them all<br />
the Lord rescued me.<br />
Paul too faced resistance to the truth, and as he held on, so should <strong>Timothy</strong>. The<br />
gospel ministry bears with it the necessity of suffering. For a sick world, health is a<br />
threat: “All who would desire to lead a godly life in Christ will be persecuted” (3:12).<br />
But as Paul was delivered—“From them all the Lord rescued me” (3:11)—so will <strong>Timothy</strong><br />
be delivered.<br />
In light of the apparent harshness and success of the opponents’ attack, the advice<br />
given to <strong>Timothy</strong> is remarkable. The use of medical imagery was common in the contemporary<br />
moral literature, so it is not unusual for Paul to contrast “healthy” and<br />
“sick” teaching. Indeed, this is what gives the polemic against the moral behavior of the<br />
opponents its force, for the ancients had the correct perception that action does follow<br />
on perceptions, and bad ideas can lead to bad actions. Philosophers who used such<br />
language, however, disagreed about the proper medical approach to “sick thought.”<br />
Some advocated harshness and scorn. They operated like surgeons. Others considered<br />
gentleness and care to be more useful for healing moral illness. That is the approach<br />
Paul advocates for <strong>Timothy</strong>. As Paul had characterized himself as being “as gentle as a<br />
nurse” (1 Thess. 2:7), so he wants <strong>Timothy</strong> to be gentle. Even when reproving, he is not<br />
to engage in harsh quarrels. Indeed, Paul sees such an attitude as opening the possibility<br />
for the adversaries’ return to the truth (2:24-26):<br />
The Lord’s servant must not be quarrelsome but kindly to everyone, an apt<br />
teacher, forbearing, correcting his opponents with gentleness. God may perhaps<br />
grant that they will repent and come to know the truth, and may escape<br />
the snare of the devil.<br />
In this process there are resources available to the Christian teacher. <strong>Timothy</strong> can<br />
look to the education he has received in the faith from his maternal ancestors (1:5;<br />
3:14). He has in Paul the source of sound teaching (1:13), the example of steadfastness<br />
in the ministry (3:10), and the model of suffering for the “good news” (3:11; 4:6). And,<br />
like Paul, he has the guidance of Torah, which he has known from his youth. It<br />
instructs him “for salvation through faith in Jesus Christ” (3:15). And because it is<br />
inspired by God, it is (3:16-17)<br />
profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness,<br />
that the man of God may be complete, equipped for every good work.
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Paul, Model of Suffering in Hope (2 <strong>Timothy</strong> 4:6-18)<br />
Paul concludes by again presenting himself as a model for <strong>Timothy</strong>. Even in prison,<br />
Paul continues to be opposed (4:14). Despite that, he does not turn from his ministry<br />
(4:17):<br />
The Lord stood by me and strengthened me to proclaim the word fully that all<br />
the Gentiles might hear it. So I was rescued from the lion’s mouth.<br />
The point for <strong>Timothy</strong> is clear. He should not be cowardly but imitate the perseverance<br />
of Paul and take “his share of suffering for the gospel.” He can count on the Lord’s supporting<br />
him, as well, and must rely on that support, since Paul himself is about to die.<br />
Paul closes with his own hope, that “Henceforth there is laid up for me the crown of<br />
righteousness which the Lord, the just judge, will award to me on that day,” and<br />
extends that hope to <strong>Timothy</strong> as well, “and not only to me, but also to all who have<br />
loved his appearing” (4:8).<br />
If this letter is written by Paul, it is evident that he believes his death is near. Moreover,<br />
the hardship of a lifetime has been brought to bear on his reflection of the ministry. Paul<br />
is concerned about securing a faithful transmission of his message and ministry to the<br />
next generation of leadership. Growing division in the church and hostility from without<br />
are reminders that such a transition will be difficult, achieved only at great personal<br />
cost to Paul and his delegates. Steadfastness, endurance, and faithfulness therefore take<br />
on an even more practical urgency. It is these values 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> seeks to inculcate. It is not<br />
that <strong>Timothy</strong> has been unfaithful. Rather, as Paul passes on the torch, he wants to<br />
“remind” <strong>Timothy</strong> of the importance of enduring despite suffering and opposition. The<br />
teacher earnestly desires that his disciples and delegates face suffering the same way he—<br />
in imitation of Jesus—did. In this way the gospel itself will endure.<br />
1 <strong>Timothy</strong>: Life in God’s Household<br />
First <strong>Timothy</strong> comes closest to the stereotypical picture of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s. Elements of a<br />
personal parenetic letter are present in it: Paul is an example (now of God’s mercy to<br />
sinners, 1:16), and <strong>Timothy</strong> is to be a model for the church (4:12). <strong>Timothy</strong>’s attitudes<br />
are also contrasted with those of the false teachers (1:3-20; 4:1-16; 6:2b-16, 20-21). The<br />
letter, however, has less overall literary coherence than 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>. It gives only the<br />
merest hint of personal circumstance: Paul left <strong>Timothy</strong> in Ephesus on his way to<br />
Macedonia (1:3). He hopes to return soon (3:14) and in the meantime writes instructions<br />
to his delegate (3:15),<br />
so that you may know how one ought to behave in the household of God,<br />
which is the church of the living God, the pillar and bulwark of the truth.
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These instructions give 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> its special character. They deal with prayer (2:1-<br />
5); the role of women in the liturgical assembly (2:8-15); the qualifications for bishops<br />
(3:1-7), deacons (3:8-13), and deaconesses (3:11); the care of widows (5:3-16); the<br />
payment of elders (5:17-19); the resolution of charges against elders (5:19-22); the<br />
attitudes of slaves (6:1-2); and the rich (6:17-19). The most disconcerting feature of<br />
1 <strong>Timothy</strong> is the haphazard way these elements are put together. If one isolated the passages<br />
concerned with <strong>Timothy</strong> and the opponents, a letter much like 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> would<br />
be the result. If one kept only the prescriptions, the writing would provide the nucleus<br />
of later “church orders,” albeit with a random and provisional air. And yet, a pattern not<br />
unlike that found in 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> emerges: the warnings against false teachers—occurring<br />
predominantly at the beginning, midpoint, and conclusion of the letter—provide<br />
a counter-example for the positive instructions on church order. Indeed, the framework<br />
for Paul’s “rules” on proper ecclesial structure is provided by the false teachers,<br />
supplying strong notes of urgency and seriousness to the unfolding subject matter.<br />
The model for this type of letter can be found in the Hellenistic royal correspondence<br />
known as the mandata principis letters, which are directives issued by rulers to<br />
their delegates who are governing territories. They were written to officials of a city or<br />
to specific individual representatives, carrying instructions for the delegate to execute.<br />
Although technically private correspondence, the directives most often were intended<br />
for larger audiences (the subject matter naturally dealt with aspects of civic life), and<br />
in this spirit the letters were sometimes inscribed on monuments for public reading.<br />
One interesting example—a letter to a newly appointed Egyptian official (PTeub.<br />
703)—not only lists duties that are to be carried out, but also goes into details of<br />
expected conduct of the official, including being an exemplary model. This clearly corresponds<br />
to what we find in 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>. Overall, the mandata principis letters indicate<br />
the widespread practice of leaders establishing contact with their delegates and taking<br />
responsibility for activities occurring in other locales through their designated representatives.<br />
Paul’s concern for the well-being of the community is thus expressed not to<br />
the community as a whole or to a local leader but to a delegate who is expected to<br />
attend to the problematic aspects of a local church’s life.<br />
A precise reconstruction of the situation in the Ephesian community is difficult.<br />
On the whole, the letter gives the impression of a relatively mature community, with<br />
its basic structures firmly in place. As so frequently, however, there is also the problem<br />
of deviance within the community. The names Hymenaeus and Alexander occur<br />
here again (1:20), now together (cf. 2 Tim. 2:17; 4:14). We are told little about them,<br />
except that “by rejecting conscience they have made shipwreck of their faith,” so that<br />
Paul was forced to hand them over to Satan so that they might turn again to the truth<br />
(1:19-20; cf. 1 Cor. 5:5; 2 Tim. 2:25). They are, therefore, members of the church who<br />
appear to have been excommunicated. Otherwise, only “certain people” (tines) are<br />
mentioned (1:3, 6; 6:21). <strong>Timothy</strong> is to charge these not to teach other doctrines<br />
(heterodidaskein; 1:3).
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The reference to other doctrines is not clear. Some people want to be considered<br />
“teachers of the law” (1:7) and are preoccupied with “myths and endless genealogies”<br />
(1:4). Some “liars whose consciences are seared with a hot iron” are against marriage<br />
for Christians and advocate dietary restrictions (4:2-3) and possibly other forms of<br />
asceticism (4:7-8). Some seek money for their teaching (6:5). Paul’s final characterization<br />
is that they are involved with “godless chatter and contradictions which they have<br />
falsely called knowledge [gnosis]” (6:20). The traits can be combined and aligned with<br />
those of opponents in other Pauline writings. When the elements of Pauline slander<br />
(e.g., the accusation of cupidity) are removed, however, they resemble the sort of elitist<br />
esoteric groups we so often encounter in the religiosity of the Hellenistic world.<br />
Several features distinguish 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> from 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> on the issue of the false<br />
teachers. (1) No mention is made in 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> of their aggressive missionary tactics<br />
or what effect these might be having. (2) In 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> they do not appear as teachers<br />
from the outside, but rather as ambitious and elitist members who were once part—<br />
or perhaps are still part—of the community itself. (3) In contrast to 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>, this<br />
letter does not stress rebuke or correction; rather, these negative characters supply the<br />
motive and context for Paul’s message for <strong>Timothy</strong> and the community. (4) On the<br />
other hand, Paul responds to them with more than polemic: he clarifies the proper<br />
understanding of those things the opponents are distorting.<br />
In response to their wishing to be teachers of the law (1:7), Paul specifies the nature<br />
and function of the law (1:8-10). In response to the forbidding of marriage and food,<br />
he stresses the essential goodness of creation and its capacity to be sanctified by prayer<br />
(4:3-5). He counters the claims for physical asceticism with those of “training in godliness”<br />
(4:7-8). He clarifies exactly what sort of “gain” one can expect from godliness,<br />
in response to those who sought monetary rewards for their teaching (6:5-10). It is<br />
very difficult, however, to draw a direct or explicit connection between what is said of,<br />
or in response to, the troublemakers, and the concrete directives concerning community<br />
life. Certainly, one can extrapolate from certain emphases to commotions caused<br />
by divergent teachings: from Paul’s insistence that prayer should be free of disputation,<br />
his refusal to give women a teaching role (2:8-15), his concern for widows becoming<br />
gadabouts and gossips (5:13), his warning against the hasty appointment of elders<br />
(5:22), and his injunctions to slaves to obey believing owners (6:2). But the explicit<br />
connections are more difficult to establish.<br />
Regarding its content, 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> contains allusions to familiar Pauline teaching,<br />
particularly in the emphasis on God’s salvific will for all humanity (see 1:15-16; 2:3-6;<br />
4:9-10; 6:13-16). There is a fascinating reference to Paul’s conversion—seen as an<br />
example of God’s mercy (1:12-16)—plus allusions to the trial and testimony of Jesus<br />
(2:6; 6:13). There is also this hymnic expression of the “mystery” in 3:16:<br />
He was manifested in the flesh, vindicated in the Spirit, seen by angels,<br />
preached among nations, believed on in the world, taken up in glory.
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These elements are dominated, however, by the practical instructions and the context<br />
of moral exhortation, with its “sound teaching” (1:10; 6:3), “training in godliness”<br />
(1:4; 4:7), and “good conscience” (1:5, 19; 3:9).<br />
The Household of God<br />
First <strong>Timothy</strong> does not provide a full and satisfying picture of the community structure<br />
of the Ephesian church. The instructions deal with matters of immediate pertinence<br />
to the author and his delegate, rather than to the historian’s curiosity.<br />
The author calls the church the household of God (oikos tou theou; 3:15). In other<br />
letters, Paul uses the expression “the church in the household of . . .” (cf. Rom. 16:5; 1<br />
Cor. 16:19; Col. 4:15), although he can also speak metaphorically of community<br />
members as “household servants” (Rom. 14:4) or “members of a household” (Gal.<br />
6:10; Eph. 2:19). It is important to note here that the church as intentional community<br />
is not completely assimilated to the household structure. A distinction is made several<br />
times between “one’s own household” and the community (1 Tim. 3:4-5, 12; 5:4). In<br />
fact, the most important function of the household in this letter is to provide an analogy<br />
for leadership: administrative abilities and leadership skills demonstrated in one<br />
structure carry implications for another. There is also a distinction—however unclear<br />
to present-day readers—drawn between the life and responsibilities of individual<br />
households and the life and responsibility of the church (see 5:4, 8, 16). The church<br />
imitates the household in many respects, but is not subsumed by it. Since early Christians<br />
met in houses—within the sphere of the household—such associations were<br />
inevitable.<br />
Paul’s directions to <strong>Timothy</strong> apply to several different spheres of the community’s<br />
life. Some are directed to the life of individual households and the community members<br />
living within them. Such are the remarks about slaves belonging to Christian<br />
masters (6:1-2) and those about rich members of the community who are not to rely<br />
on their wealth but use it for helping others (6:17-19). Similar is the demand that individual<br />
children within households provide for widows (5:4, 8, 16) and the banal yet<br />
pertinent advice on the attitudes that <strong>Timothy</strong> should display toward diverse age and<br />
gender groups (5:1-2). There is little dramatic in this advice and nothing implausible.<br />
The author wants order, propriety, and graciousness in the domestic lives of believers.<br />
Some—not much—attention is paid to the liturgical life of the community, but<br />
with a focus different from the instructions concerning the Lord’s Supper and charismatic<br />
gifts in 1 Corinthians 11–14. Three very specific directives are given. First,<br />
prayers are to be said for all people, especially rulers (2:1-4). This is certainly unexceptional,<br />
as is the second instruction, which is that the male members, who pray with<br />
uplifted arms, should not have anger or quarreling among them (2:8).<br />
The instructions about women are somewhat more problematic. The contrast<br />
between luxurious external adornment and the life of internal virtue (2:9-10) is
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commonplace in Jewish and Greco-Roman Hellenistic moral teaching. But the prohibition<br />
against women teaching in the assembly or having authority over men (2:11-12)<br />
is more difficult to contextualize. The command here lacks something of the tension<br />
found in 1 Cor. 11:2-16 and 14:34-36. There, the context was one of charismatic worship<br />
in which women were certainly prophesying and praying. Here, the instruction<br />
focuses narrowly on the cultural unacceptability of women teaching in public. They<br />
are to give instruction only in private for their children (2:15, taking “they” as referring<br />
to “her children”; cf. 2 Tim. 1:5; <strong>Titus</strong> 2:3). The justification for the prohibition is<br />
harsh, and the account of the sin of Eve (2:13-14) is sharper than in Paul’s other reference<br />
to this part of the Genesis story (2 Cor. 11:2-3).<br />
What we learn overall from these few remarks about worship is that it involves public<br />
prayer and teaching, and that both of these activities are male prerogatives. As<br />
much as one may seek a context for this in Diaspora Jewish synagogues, the participation<br />
of women appears more multifaceted there than what we see here in 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>,<br />
and more in line in with what we see in Paul’s other letters. Of course, details are missing<br />
that might point to specific church problems (cf. 5:3-16) or perhaps even outside<br />
influences, such as the cult of Artemis, which was popular among women in Ephesus.<br />
Overall, however, Paul’s message is consistent: order in the household and the church<br />
is essential for witness to the world. He clearly perceives the issue of female leadership<br />
as fitting into this in some way.<br />
The most extended attention is given to the officers of the Ephesian church. The<br />
office of bishop (episkopos; 3:1-7) and deacon (diakonos; 3:8-10, 12-13) have been<br />
encountered before, albeit briefly (Phil. 1:1), as have deaconesses (3:11; cf. Rom. 16:1).<br />
The reference to women deacons is debated, but the repetition of “likewise” with the<br />
similarity of required behaviors in 3:11 (cf. 3:8) seems to demand that the women of<br />
3:11 be viewed as parallel to, rather than the wives of, the deacons in 3:8. The existence<br />
of deaconesses in Ephesus indicates that although teaching was not an allowable activity<br />
for women, some ministerial roles were open to them. The office of elder (presbyteros;<br />
5:17-22) is not found in other Pauline letters, although Acts associates elders<br />
with Pauline churches (14:23) and specifically with Ephesus in 20:17.<br />
The instructions do not describe job responsibilities but personal qualifications.<br />
The bishop (or overseer) is obviously an administrator above all, and his position<br />
demands appropriate capabilities, although the bishop is also expected to be an “apt<br />
teacher” (3:2). Sound moral qualities and leadership ability are paramount (3:1-7).<br />
The work of deacons is also such that administrative abilities (proved by the management<br />
of a household) are desirable (3:12). Because specific cases are raised, we learn a<br />
little more about elders. Those who “rule well” are to be paid double, “especially those<br />
who labor in the word and teaching” (5:17). This suggests a board of elders (presbyterion,<br />
4:14) who perform administrative functions, among whose number some may<br />
also teach or preach. The other directives concerning elders are a reminder of human<br />
frailty in every position of authority. Charges can be brought against them and must
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be carefully considered (5:19). <strong>Timothy</strong> may be forced to rebuke an elder publicly—<br />
seemingly the role of an outside delegate, not of someone in the same community<br />
(5:20). In the light of these possibilities, Paul gives the sound advice that appointment<br />
to such positions should not be made with haste (5:22). His concluding injunction is<br />
classically Pauline: “Keep these rules without favor; do nothing from partiality” (5:21).<br />
The discussion of widows (5:3-16) is the most problematic for our understanding<br />
of the Ephesian community structure. The question clearly seems to be who should be<br />
supported by community funds, for a distinction is made on the basis of support<br />
available from private families (5:4, 8). The resources of the community as a whole are<br />
not to be burdened unnecessarily (5:16): the community’s obligation is to help those<br />
who are “real widows” (5:16). But the discussion becomes more complicated at the<br />
point of who constitutes a “real” widow. Paul distinguishes between those whose husbands<br />
have died and those who are truly “left alone and have hoped in God” (5:5).<br />
Some women whose husbands have died are self-indulgent (5:6)—which means they<br />
have resources—or are not wholeheartedly committed to the community’s life. If they<br />
got the chance, they would like to remarry. Some of them are idlers on the community<br />
dole, meddling and gossiping (5:13) instead of serving the community. Paul’s solution<br />
would have widows of a marrying age remarry if possible. Only older widows and<br />
those without other resources (“left alone”) should be enrolled (5:9, 11). But does the<br />
term “enroll” indicate a special order of widows? Paul complicates the question by<br />
appearing to provide a list of qualifications as he does for other offices (5:9-10).<br />
The simplest and best explanation is that the Ephesian church followed the model<br />
of Diaspora Judaism in providing assistance on a regular and organized basis for the<br />
needy of the community (cf. Acts 6:1-7). One of the most important tasks of every<br />
Jewish community was the carrying out of this obligation. It was never easy. The obvious<br />
categories of those who required aid were the strangers, orphans, and widows.<br />
Orphans and strangers were easy to identify and relatively easy to provide for. The case<br />
of widows was always far more ambiguous and difficult. Paul wants <strong>Timothy</strong> in this<br />
case to be sure that only the truly needy are cared for by the community as a whole—<br />
and then only those with no other resources available to them (i.e., their Christian<br />
families should care for them first). They should be enrolled on a list that would certify<br />
their qualification for help. In return, they were to give themselves not to their own<br />
interests but to the service of the community as a whole.<br />
The community structure at Ephesus according to 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> is not complicated. It<br />
resembles what little we know of the structure of Diaspora Jewish synagogues (see<br />
chap. 3, pp. 74–79). In them, a leader (archisynagogos) and a board of elders (gerousia)<br />
did administrative work and settled disputes. Their obligations included running the<br />
community charity efforts, both the raising of funds and their disbursement. They<br />
were helped in these functions by assistants (chazzan/diakonos) who performed more<br />
menial tasks in the liturgy and community charity functions. There is nothing in this<br />
that is not fully compatible with the church in Paul’s lifetime. Moreover, there is
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nothing in this letter that approaches a hierarchical, much less a monarchical, order.<br />
No office is theologized or otherwise legitimated. The community structure is taskoriented<br />
and practical: it is established to meet the very real needs of the Ephesian<br />
Christian community.<br />
The fact, however, that attention is given to these matters implies that there is more<br />
here than Paul simply detailing the obvious. Rather, as the instructions themselves<br />
make partially clear, there were problems with elders and with widows. But the need<br />
may also have come from the disruptions caused by those who, “with ideas in their<br />
heads,” unsettled others. Certainly, a concern for order and for the good reputation of<br />
the community with outsiders runs through these instructions, a concern not alien to<br />
Paul elsewhere. The bishop should not be a recent convert who is easily led astray, thus<br />
falling into Satan’s trap and giving outsiders a negative view of the church (3:7). The<br />
bad behavior of would-be widows can make outsiders revile the community (5:14).<br />
Slaves who refuse to serve their Christian masters will cause the gospel to be defamed<br />
(6:1). The overall goal is internal stability and external peace—here approached<br />
through the instructions given to a delegate. This is not much different from what is<br />
expressed in the most charismatic of Paul’s letters (1 Cor. 14:37-40):<br />
If anyone thinks that he is a prophet or spiritual, he should acknowledge that<br />
what I am writing to you is a command of the Lord. If anyone does not recognize<br />
this, he is not recognized. So, my brethren, earnestly desire to prophesy,<br />
and do not forbid speaking in tongues. But all things should be done<br />
decently and in order.<br />
In 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>, Paul was concerned with the preservation of his gospel through the<br />
person of <strong>Timothy</strong>—Paul’s delegate. In 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>, the community as a whole is in<br />
view and <strong>Timothy</strong>’s function is more critical here: he is the delegate who mediates<br />
instruction for the well-being of the church. As in Ephesians, the Christian household<br />
and community are witnesses to the world of “faith and truth” (2:7). But only a community<br />
that is orderly and harmonious—displaying the best of the values and virtues<br />
of the larger Greco-Roman culture—can truly be the “household of God.” Indeed,<br />
only as an orderly “household” can the community stand as a witness among the Gentiles<br />
to the great mystery in Christ (3:16), with a leadership that will be “pillars and<br />
supports for the truth.”<br />
<strong>Titus</strong>: An Infant Church in the Outpost<br />
In <strong>Titus</strong>, the segments that make up the puzzle of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s are pieced together in<br />
still another fashion. Unlike 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>, this letter gives a bit more autobiographical<br />
information. Paul is apparently in mid-career. His whereabouts are not indicated, but
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he expects to winter in Nicopolis (3:12) and anticipates that <strong>Titus</strong> will return to him<br />
from his temporary duty in Crete upon Paul’s sending Artemas and Tychichus to<br />
relieve him (3:12). To fill out this picture, two reasons are given for Paul’s having “left”<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> on Crete: <strong>Titus</strong> is to take care of unfinished business left by Paul, and he is to<br />
appoint elders in each city (1:5). Much of the letter is taken up with instructions on<br />
these matters.<br />
There is nothing in this information that is itself implausible, except that we do not<br />
know of any Pauline mission in Crete; Acts only mentions Paul’s being there as a prisoner<br />
on his way to Rome by ship (Acts 27:7-15). And if the Apollos of 3:13 is the same<br />
as the one in 1 Cor. 3:1-6, it is perhaps a little strange to see him as a helper of <strong>Titus</strong><br />
(though cf. Acts 18:27; 1 Cor. 16:12). Tychichus, of course, we have met before (Acts<br />
20:4; Col. 4:7; Eph. 6:21; 2 Tim. 4:12).<br />
While the Letter to <strong>Titus</strong> bears a close correspondence to 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> by virtue of its<br />
being a mandata principis, stylistically it stands between 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> and 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>. It<br />
appears neither distinctively Pauline throughout (as is the case with 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>) nor<br />
only remotely Pauline (as is the case with 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>). Rather, it alternates short sections<br />
whose Pauline rhythms none would deny (see, e.g., 1:15; 2:11-14; 3:4-7) with<br />
longer stretches of a seemingly quite different style. In contrast to 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>, the parenetic<br />
elements are minimal. <strong>Titus</strong> is only told (2:7-8):<br />
Show yourself a model of good deeds and in your teaching show integrity,<br />
gravity, and sound speech that cannot be censured, so that an opponent may<br />
be put to shame, having nothing evil to say of us.<br />
Moreover, much more than in 1 or 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>, there seems to be a direct relationship<br />
between the opponents and the instructions concerning “what is defective.” In sum,<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> is best understood when considered on its own terms as a genuine piece of correspondence,<br />
addressing a specific and real situation.<br />
The Situation of <strong>Titus</strong><br />
Everything in the letter supports the picture (suggested by 1:5) of a new, developing<br />
community. In 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>, the church at Ephesus already had bishops, elders, and deacons<br />
in place. Indeed, the provision could be made that the bishop not be a “recent<br />
convert” (1 Tim. 3:6), suggesting that the community has been in existence for some<br />
time. By contrast, in <strong>Titus</strong> it is stated that the elder or bishop (the transition in 1:5-7<br />
is not altogether clear) ought to have children who are believers and that these should<br />
not be “open to the charge of being profligate or insubordinate” (1:6). Presumably<br />
there were Christian households in the community that could still have children who<br />
were unconverted, indicating the relatively new growth of Christianity in the region.<br />
A further clue to the context of this community is offered in the catalog of this bishop’s
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qualities, especially those given in addition to the list in 1 Tim. 3:1-7: the bishop is not<br />
to be “arrogant or quick tempered or violent” (1:7; in the Greek these terms are quite<br />
strong).<br />
We are led to wonder about the population among which Christianity is trying to<br />
strike roots. In the eyes of the author, the populace is unattractive: “Cretans are always<br />
liars, vicious brutes, lazy gluttons” (1:12). In fact, such a view of the Cretan population<br />
seems to have enjoyed almost proverbial status in antiquity. The sharpness with which<br />
the contrast between the Cretans and Christians is developed suggests the social formation<br />
rhetoric of a newly developing community, which must draw unmistakable<br />
borders of demarcation between the old life and the new. There may even be some<br />
hints in this language that the demarcation process is not meeting with full success,<br />
although the language of incivility ultimately functions as a foil to develop positive<br />
Christian traits.<br />
The climate for evangelization is made stormier by opponents who are competing<br />
for the religious allegiance of the populace. In <strong>Titus</strong>, these opponents are outsiders,<br />
evidently Jewish rivals. They are “from the circumcision” (1:10), have “Jewish myths”<br />
(1:14), are stressing legal observance in some form (1:14), and claim to “know God”<br />
(1:16). The opponents are seemingly successful, and the degree of their success provides<br />
an important insight into the emphasis of <strong>Titus</strong>: “They are upsetting whole<br />
households by teaching for base gain what they have no right to teach” (1:11). A fragile<br />
Christian community, therefore, is being threatened not only by the problems<br />
accompanying recent converts in an apparently unsupportive environment but also by<br />
the ability of rival Jewish missionaries to persuade the newly converted that they have<br />
a more attractive vision for being God’s people.<br />
Here there is no possibility for dialogue. The survival of an infant church is at<br />
stake. <strong>Titus</strong> is therefore told by Paul, “They must be silenced” (1:11); and those being<br />
seduced by the Jewish opponents are to be “rebuked sharply” so that “they may be<br />
sound in the faith” (1:13). <strong>Titus</strong> himself is to avoid “stupid controversies, genealogical<br />
discussions, and quarrels over the law” (3:9). If anyone in the community remains factious,<br />
that person is to be warned repeatedly, then cut off (3:10). These are serious<br />
remedies for a tough situation. The bishop, likewise, is not simply to be an apt teacher<br />
(didaktikos) as in 1 Tim. 3:2. He has a more vigorous task (1:9):<br />
He must hold firm to the sure word as taught, so that he might be able to give<br />
instruction in sound doctrine, and also to confute those who contradict it.<br />
The Teaching of <strong>Titus</strong><br />
The Writings of the New Testament<br />
It is important to observe that the only specific element of “church order” in <strong>Titus</strong> is<br />
the remarks about the bishop. Otherwise, the focus of practical instruction is on the<br />
household and civic responsibilities of Christians. In 2:1-10, Paul provides a list of atti-
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tudes that are appropriate, if somewhat bland, for older men (2:2) and women (2:3),<br />
younger women (2:4-5) and men (2:6), followed by an exhortation to slaves (2:9-10).<br />
In 3:1-2, general civic attitudes of submission to authority and basic rules of civility are<br />
recommended. All of these can be summed up as the doing of good works (kala erga;<br />
2:14; 3:8, 14) that express the new Christian identity, in contrast to the wicked deeds<br />
of the opponents (1:16).<br />
A closer look at the specific instructions raises some interesting questions. Why<br />
should older women need to be told not to be winebibbers (2:3)? Do their daughters<br />
really require teaching to “love their husbands and children” (2:4)? Are Christian slaves<br />
in need of instruction not to pilfer their masters’ goods and not to be stubborn and<br />
untrustworthy (2:9-10)? Do Christians generally need to be told to seek “honest work”<br />
and that they should not be revolutionary (3:1-2)? The problem is this: behavior this<br />
ordinary should fall into the category of “what goes without saying,” but here we find<br />
basic instructions being given in civility, the rudiments of civilized behavior. Since, as<br />
we have seen, “households” are being overturned by the success of the Jewish missionaries,<br />
these instructions are intended—in response—to strengthen the basic familial<br />
unit of the community by implicitly contrasting Christian behavior with that of the<br />
opponents: the opponents represent the opposite of the civility that ought to be found<br />
among members of the Christian household. Through this type of insider-outsider<br />
distinction, the gospel teaching is given a framework in which it might be able to grow<br />
securely, closing off the opportunity for further damage by the opponents. In <strong>Titus</strong>,<br />
therefore, the gospel itself takes on a civilizing function: it teaches people how to be<br />
members of society, a nuance often disguised by the English translation of the Greek.<br />
In this light, we can better understand the two remarkable kerygmatic statements<br />
in <strong>Titus</strong> in which the Pauline language is most pronounced. These statements, we<br />
should note, frame and interpret the concrete directives. In 3:3-7, the author quotes a<br />
“faithful saying” that takes the form of a before-and-after statement, with the pivotal<br />
point being people’s baptism as a response to the “good news.” Before, they had shared<br />
in all the hostile attitudes of their neighbors, passing their days in malice and envy,<br />
“hated by people and hating one another” (3:3). But they had been given a new identity<br />
(3:4-7):<br />
But when the goodness and loving kindness of God our Savior appeared, he<br />
saved us, not because of deeds done by us in righteousness, but in virtue of his<br />
own mercy, by the washing of regeneration and renewal in the Holy Spirit,<br />
which he poured out upon us richly through Jesus Christ our Savior, so that<br />
we might be justified by his grace and become heirs in hope of eternal life.<br />
Here we see that the qualities of God’s gift—the goodness and kindness and<br />
mercy—should themselves shape Christian identity, both renewing and regenerating<br />
it. This statement is followed by the final command, “Insist on these things, that those
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who have believed in God might apply themselves to good deeds” (3:8). In short, specific<br />
forms of Christian behavior ought to follow upon the adoption of this new identity<br />
given by God.<br />
The other statement (2:11-14) is found in the middle of the elementary civic<br />
instruction and is even more illuminating:<br />
For the grace of God has appeared for the salvation of all, training us to<br />
renounce irreligion and worldly passions, and to live sober, upright, and godly<br />
lives in this world, awaiting our blessed hope, the appearing of the glory of our<br />
great God and savior Jesus Christ, who gave himself for us to redeem us from<br />
all iniquity and to purify for himself a people of his own who are zealous for<br />
good deeds.<br />
The most important word in this passage may well be the first—“For”—which connects<br />
the specific instructions to their basis: the grace of God itself. But the next most<br />
important word is surely “training” (paideuousa). For Paul, the grace of God itself has<br />
an educative function: it trains people toward the goal of becoming human social<br />
creatures. Here, as elsewhere in Paul, the Christian life involves a transformation from<br />
the old life to the new. Just as Christians had become “slaves to righteousness” (Rom.<br />
6:18), so here they are to be “zealous for good works.” In the context of <strong>Titus</strong>, this takes<br />
on an even more pragmatic meaning because the community seems still to be in the<br />
process of formation and stabilization. God’s grace actually becomes a pedagogue for<br />
the new believers, training them in civic and social duties.<br />
In a fascinating shift, Christianity here establishes its own distinctive “training,”<br />
rivaling yet adapting the Greco-Roman pedagogical emphases. The point of all this is<br />
simple: the Christian household now represents the societal and cultural ideal. This<br />
serves to reinforce the boundaries that separate the insiders from those “vicious<br />
brutes” on the outside, which in turn solidifies and cements this community firmly in<br />
the tradition of the Pauline church.<br />
In the end, we see why the general populace is portrayed the way it is in <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
Throughout, Paul wants to contrast the life of the believer with the people of the<br />
world, and he does this by sharpening the distinctions between the two, subtly transposing<br />
their respective positions vis-à-vis cultural ideals. For Paul, the Christian solution<br />
is obvious: the gospel itself can provide a rooting in the world and the possibility<br />
of growth. The grace that comes to people in baptism can change their hearts from<br />
hostility to civility, and can begin to shape their behavior in ways compatible with their<br />
new identity. Life together in the social structures of “this world” demands of Christians<br />
that they leave behind irreligion, worldly passions, and hostility, adopting instead<br />
sober, godly, and upright patterns of behavior.<br />
Scholars have often labeled this type of ethic as a “domesticated virtue,” reflecting<br />
Christian cultural and social adaptation over time. Yet, in <strong>Titus</strong>, this ethic is much
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more that of eschatological witness, as 2:13 makes evident. Here we see the sharpness<br />
of Paul’s thought elsewhere: the Christian lives on the cusp of the new age and the old<br />
(2:12-13). Indeed, the admonition for Christian faithfulness rests in these two fundamental<br />
and widely attested Pauline axioms: Jesus has redeemed his people (2:14) and<br />
he is coming in glory to establish them eternally (2:13).<br />
Study Questions<br />
1. What difference would it make in our understanding of Paul if he did not write these<br />
letters? In our understanding of the history of the church?<br />
2. Considering all the New Testament references, what was Paul’s relationship with<br />
<strong>Timothy</strong>?<br />
3. What difference does it make that these letters are addressed to individuals rather<br />
than congregations?<br />
4. How does attention to “letter types” help in the interpretation of these compositions?<br />
5. What role do metaphors of the family and household play in these letters? What<br />
would account for this?<br />
Bibliographical Note<br />
Good summaries of the issues pertaining to authenticity are found in W. G. Kümmel,<br />
Introduction to the New Testament, trans. H. C. Kee (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1975),<br />
366–87; and E. E. Ellis,“The Authorship of the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s: A Resume and Assessment of<br />
Recent Trends,” in his Paul and His Recent Interpreters (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,<br />
1961), 49–57. For the discussion of specific points, see the classic study by P. N. Harrison,<br />
The Problem of the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1921), as well as<br />
the more recent ones by R. F. Collins, <strong>Letters</strong> That Paul Did Not Write: The Epistle to the<br />
Hebrews and the Pauline Pseudepigrapha (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1988), 88–131;<br />
L. R. Donelson, Pseudepigraphy and Ethical Argument in the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (Tübingen:<br />
J.C.B. Mohr [Siebeck], 1986); K. Graystone and G. Herdan, “The Authorship of<br />
the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s in the Light of Statistical Linguistics,” NTS 6 (1959–60): 1–15; and J. D.<br />
Miller, The <strong>Pastoral</strong> <strong>Letters</strong> as Composite Documents (SNTSMS, 93; Cambridge: Cambridge<br />
Univ. Press, 1997). See also the vocabulary studies by D. Cook, “2 <strong>Timothy</strong><br />
IV.6–8 and the Epistle to the Philippians,” JTS 33 (1982): 168–71; and “The <strong>Pastoral</strong>
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Fragments Reconsidered,” JTS 35 (1984): 120–31. For well-balanced discussions, see C.<br />
F. D. Moule, “The Problem of the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles: A Reappraisal,” BJRL (1965):<br />
430–52; and B. Metzger,“A Reconsideration of Certain Arguments Against the Pauline<br />
Authorship of the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” Exp Tim 70 (1958): 91ff. The most extensive<br />
recent attempt to place the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s within the framework of Acts is J. A. T. Robinson,<br />
Redating the New Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1970), 67–85. The<br />
Lukan connection is pursued in different ways by S. G. Wilson, Luke and the <strong>Pastoral</strong><br />
Epistles (London: SPCK, 1979); and J. Quinn, “The Last Volume of Luke: The Relation<br />
of Luke-Acts to the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” in C. H. Talbert (ed.), Perspectives on Luke-Acts<br />
(Danville, Va.: Assn. of Baptist Professors of Religion, 1978), 62–75.<br />
The standard view of the pastorals as pseudonymous, second- or third-generation<br />
productions is found (with variations) in R. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament,<br />
2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1955), 2:95–118; J. M. Ford, “A Note on<br />
Protomontanism in the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” NTS 17 (1976): 338–46; H. von Campenhausen,<br />
Ecclesiastical Authority and Spiritual Power in the Church of the First Three Centuries,<br />
trans. J. Baker (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1969); C. K. Barrett, “Pauline<br />
Controversies in the Post-Pauline Period,” NTS 20 (1973–74): 229–45; E. Käsemann,<br />
“Paul and Early Catholicism,” in his New Testament Questions of Today (Philadelphia:<br />
<strong>Fortress</strong> Press, 1969), 236–51; and M. C. de Boer,“Images of Paul in the Post-Apostolic<br />
Church,” CBQ 42 (1980): 359–80. For the argument that the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s responded to<br />
the threat posed by the egalitarian demands of second-century women, see J. Bassler,<br />
“The Widow’s Tale: A Fresh Look at 1 Tim. 5:3-16,” JBL 103 (1984): 23–41; and R. D.<br />
MacDonald, The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon<br />
(Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983).<br />
For the structure of the synagogue, see chapter 3. For the effort of organized charity<br />
in Judaism and the larger Greco-Roman world, see G. Hamel, Poverty and Charity<br />
in Roman Palestine, First Three Centuries C.E. (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press,<br />
1990); G. E Moore, Judaism in the First Three Centuries of the Christian Era, 2 vols.<br />
(New York: Schocken Books, 1971 [1927]), 2:162–79; and B. A. Pearson,“Philanthropy<br />
in the Greco-Roman World and in Early Christianity,” in his The Emergence of the<br />
Christian Religion: Essays on Early Christianity (Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity Press Int’l,<br />
1997), 186–213. On the relationship of early church and synagogue, see especially J. T.<br />
Burtchaell, From Synagogue to Church: Public Services and Offices in the Earliest Christian<br />
Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992). On elders in early<br />
Christianity and Judaism, see R. A. Campbell, The Elders: Seniority within Earliest<br />
Christianity (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1994).<br />
For various aspects of offices in the early church as they relate to the argument of<br />
this chapter, see B. L. Blackburn, “The Identity of the ‘Women’ in 1 Tim. 3:11,” in C. D.<br />
Osburn (ed.), Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity: Volume 1 (Joplin, Mo.: College<br />
Press, 1995), 303–19; J. N. Collins, Diakonia: Reinterpreting the Ancient Sources (New<br />
York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990); J. P Meier, “Presbyteros in the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” CBQ
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35 (1973): 323–45; B. Reicke, “The Constitution of the Early Church in the Light of<br />
Jewish Documents,” in K. Stendhal (ed.), The Scrolls and the New Testament (New<br />
York: Harper & Row, 1957), 143–56; J. Reumann,“Church Office in Paul, Especially in<br />
Philippians,” in B. H. McLean (ed.), Origins and Method: Towards a New Understanding<br />
of Judaism and Christianity (JSNTSup, 86; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press,<br />
1993), 82–91; J. H. Stiefel, “Women Deacons in 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>: A Linguistic and Literary<br />
Look at ‘Women Likewise . . .’,” NTS 41 (1995): 442–57; and B. B. Thurston, The Widows:<br />
A Women’s Ministry in the Early Church (Minneapolis: <strong>Fortress</strong> Press, 1989). On<br />
the relevance of ancient associations and collegia, see J. S. Kloppenborg,“Edwin Hatch,<br />
Churches and Collegia,” in Origins and Method, 212–38; and B. H. McLean, “The<br />
Agrippinilla Inscription: Religious Associations and Early Christian Formation,” in<br />
Origins and Method, 239–70.<br />
For the example of the parenetic letter, see A. J. Malherbe, Ancient Epistolary Theorists<br />
(SBLSBS, 19; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988), 69, 75. Also see the relevant studies by<br />
B. Fiore, The Function of Personal Example in the Socratic and <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (AnB,<br />
105; Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1986); and M. M. Mitchell,“New Testament Envoys<br />
in the Context of Greco-Roman Diplomatic and Epistolary Conventions: The Example<br />
of <strong>Timothy</strong> and <strong>Titus</strong>,” JBL 111 (1992): 641–62.<br />
The use of polemic in these letters is examined by R. J. Karris, “The Background<br />
and Significance of the Polemic of the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” JBL 92 (1973): 549–64; F. H.<br />
Colson,“Myths and Genealogies—A Note on the Polemic of the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” JTS<br />
19 (1917–18): 265–71; and L. T. Johnson, “II <strong>Timothy</strong> and the Polemic Against False<br />
Teachers: A Re-examination,” JRS 6/7 (1978–79): 1–26, which provides the basic<br />
framework for the analysis in this chapter.<br />
On the community context reflected in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s, see R. M. Kidd, Wealth and<br />
Beneficence in the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles: A “Bourgeois” Form of Early Christianity? (SBLDS,<br />
122; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990); M. Y. MacDonald, The Pauline Churches: A Socio-<br />
Historical Study of the Institutionalization in the Pauline and Deutero-Pauline Writings<br />
(SNTSMS, 60; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988), 159–234; and D. C. Verner,<br />
The Household of God: The Social World of the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (SBLDS, 71; Chico,<br />
Calif.: Scholars Press, 1983). Also helpful is H. O. Maier, The Social Setting of the Ministry<br />
as Reflected in the Writings of Hermas, Clement, and Ignatius (Waterloo, Canada:<br />
Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, 1991).<br />
For various thematic aspects of the three letters, see J. W. Aageson, “2 <strong>Timothy</strong> and<br />
Its Theology,” SBLSP 36 (1997): 692–714; J. A. Allen, “The ‘In Christ’ Formula in the<br />
<strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” NTS 10 (1963): 115–21; L. R. Donelson, “Studying Paul: 2 <strong>Timothy</strong><br />
as Remembrance,” SBLSP 36 (1997): 715–31; E. E. Ellis, “Traditions in the <strong>Pastoral</strong><br />
Epistles,” in C. A. Evans and W. F. Stinespring (eds.), Early Jewish and Christian Exegesis<br />
(Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987), 237–53; G. D. Fee, “Toward a Theology of 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>—from<br />
a Pauline Perspective,” SBLSP 36 (1997): 732–49; M. J. Goodwin, “The<br />
Pauline Background of the Living God as Interpretive Context for 1 <strong>Timothy</strong> 4.10,”
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JSNT 61 (1996): 65–85; R. H. Gundry, “The Form, Meaning, and Background of the<br />
Hymn Quoted in I Tim 3:16,” in W. Gasque and R. P. Martin (eds.), Apostolic History<br />
and the Gospel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970), 203–22; A. T. Hanson, Studies in the<br />
<strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (London: SPCK, 1968); M. J. Harris, “<strong>Titus</strong> 2:13 and the Deity of<br />
Christ,” in D. Hagner and M. J. Harris (eds.), Pauline Studies (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,<br />
1980), 262–77; D. Horrell, “Converging Ideologies: Berger and Luckmann and<br />
the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” JSNT 50 (1993): 85–103; G. W. Knight III, The Faithful Sayings<br />
in the <strong>Pastoral</strong> <strong>Letters</strong> (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979); A. Y. Lau, Manifest in<br />
Flesh: The Epiphany Christology of the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (WUNT, 2.86; J. C. B. Mohr<br />
[Siebeck], 1996); H. Marshall, “Salvation in the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” in H. Cancik et al.<br />
(eds.), Geschichte-Tradition-Reflexion, 3 vols. (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1996),<br />
3:449–69; N. J. McEleny, “The Vice-Lists of the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,” CBQ 36 (1974):<br />
203–19; A. J. Malherbe, “‘In Season and Out of Season:’ 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> 4:2,” JBL 103<br />
(1984): 235–43; idem, “Medical Imagery in the <strong>Pastoral</strong>s,” in W. E. March (ed.), Texts<br />
and Testaments (San Antonio: Trinity Univ. Press, 1980), 19–35; idem, “‘In Season and<br />
Out of Season’: 2 <strong>Timothy</strong> 4:2,” JBL 103(1982): 23–41; I. H. Marshall,“Salvation, Grace<br />
and Works in the Later Writings in the Pauline Corpus,” NTS 42 (1996): 339–58; M.<br />
Prior, Paul the Letter-Writer and the Second Letter to <strong>Timothy</strong> (JSNTSup, 23; Sheffield:<br />
Sheffield Academic Press, 1989); P. H. Towner, The Goal of Our Instruction: The Structure<br />
of Theology and Ethics in the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (JSNTSup, 34; Sheffield: Sheffield<br />
Academic Press, 1989); and F. Young,“The <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles and the Ethics of Reading,”<br />
JSNT 45 (1992): 105–20. For a more general treatment, see M. Davies, The <strong>Pastoral</strong><br />
Epistles (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996); and F. Young, The Theology of the<br />
<strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994).<br />
For critical commentary, see M. Dibelius and H. Conzelmann, The <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles,<br />
ed. H. Koester, trans. P. Buttolph and A. Yarbro (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: <strong>Fortress</strong><br />
Press, 1972); G. W. Knight III, The <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,<br />
1992); and J. D. Quinn, The Letter to <strong>Titus</strong> (AB; New York: Doubleday, 1990). For more<br />
general commentary, see L. T. Johnson, Letter to Paul’s Delegates: 1 <strong>Timothy</strong>, 2 <strong>Timothy</strong>,<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> (Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity Press Int’l, 1996); and J. N. D. Kelly, A Commentary on<br />
the <strong>Pastoral</strong> Epistles (HNTC, New York: Harper & Row, 1963).
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Mosaic zodiac and votive inscriptions in the floor of the synagogue at Hammath Tiberias<br />
(mid-fourth cent.)