Farm Machinery and Equipment

McGRAW-HILL PUBLICATION'S IN
. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
DANIELS SCOATES, A.E., CONSULTING EDITOR
FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

FARM MACHINERY
"AND
EQUIPMENT
BY
HARRIS PEARSON SMITH, A.E.
Chief, Division of Agricultural Engineering, Texas Agricultural Experiment
Station, College Station, Texas; formerly Associate Professor of Agri-
cultural Engineering, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas;
Member, American Society of Agricultural Engineer8
SECOND EDITION
SEVENTH IMPRESSION
McGR:!\'W
NE
COPYRIGHT, 1929, 19~BY4-lfFTHE
MCGR~,w-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
All rights reserved. This book, or

parts thereof, may not be reproduced
in any form without permission of
the publishers.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
•
Many developments have occurred in the field of farm machinery in
the seven-year interval between the first and second editions of this book.
Improvements in tractor implements, espe.cially attachments for row-
crop tractors, have brought about changes in farming practices that have
been largely instrumental in reducing labor requirements and production
costs.
The rapid progress in the mechanization of agriculture has made it
necessary in the' preparation of this edition to revise and rewrite the
greater portion of the text. Much obsolete material has been discarded
and replaced with new subject matter. New chapters have been added,
discussing farm machinery in its relation to agriculture, dusting and
spraying equIpment. and terracing machinery. The chapters on wagons
and motQr truc:;ks have been combined and supplemented with a treat-
ment of the automobile trailer. Many of the illustrations have been
replaced, by either new or improved ones to show the latest types of
machines now available.
The dis~ussion of the developments on the mechanical harvesting of
cotton has been brought up to date, giving results of experimental work
done during the past few years. Improvements in haying machinery,
such as placing the gears in a bath of oil enclosed in a dustproof case and
the windrow pick-up baler, are described and illustrated. A number
of illustrations show machinery equipped with rubber tires, an innova-
. tion on many farm implements. In general, an effort has been made to
bring the entire sulJject matter of the text up to date and to show the
latest developments in the field of farm machinery.
The author is indebted to many farm implement manufacturers for
their splendid cooperation in furnishing descriptive literature and
illustrations. He especially desires to expr~ss his appreciation to Pro-
fessors F. R. Jones and Donald Christy for their helpful suggestions and
criticisms. A sincere attempt was made to give credit wherever due, and
any oversights were not intentional.
H. P. SMITH.
COLLEGE STATION, TEXAS,
February, 1937.
v
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
This book is int~nded primarily as a text for use in farm machine
classes for agricultural and agricultural engineering students. It is al
intended as an aid to farm equipment salesmen and dealers, agricultUl
extension workers, farmers, and others interested in the introducti.
and use of labor-saving equipment for the farm. .
It has been the aim of the author to present a treatise on faJ
machinery coVering the most important types of machines used in gene]
'farming. The book opens with a discussion of the rp.ore importa
phases of physics which are of assistance in analyzing the design, Opel
tion, and adjustment of the machines taken up in later chapters. Follo
ing this is a brief description of the various elements of a farm machiJ
together with typical applications. An innovation is the chapter on t
selection of farm machinery in which are given suggestions as to the be
place to purchase the equipment.
The main part of the book is a discussion of the various types of fa]
machines, their design, construction, operation, and efficiency. M(
space is given to plows than ordinarily because of their importance
the preparation Of the seed bed for all crops. Machinery used in t
growing, harvesting, and preparation of cc)tton for the market is giv
special attention. The combined harv~ster-thresher is thQrougl
covered. The author has endeavored to arrange the discussion of thl
machines in the logical sequence in which they are usually applied to 1
farm work.
The entire field of farm machinery as applicable to this country I
been covered as fully as space will permit.
An effort was made to cover the latest types of machines develoJ
for the farm;'those machines that have proved to be economical in tb
use and instrumental in reducing the cost of production.
The author is indebted to: Dr. O. W. Silvey, of the Physics Depf
ment, and Professor E. R. Alexander, of the Department of Agricultu
Education, of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Tha]
are also due Miss Daisy Brogdon for her' assistance in preparing
manuscript.,
H. P. SMITH
AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE OF TEXAS,
COLLEGE STATION, TE~.
May, 1929.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The illustrations used were secured from many sources but principally
from photographs, proof prints, and illus,trations.from trade literature
furnished by various manufacturers of farm machinery. The author
wishes to express his appreciation to the following concerns: International
Harvester Company of America; J. 1. Case Company; Oliver Farm Equip-
ment Company; Rock Island Plow Company; The Cardwell Machine
Company; The Link-Belt Company; Rockwood Manufacturing Com-
pany; Flint-Walling Manufacturing Company, Union Iron Works;
Light Draft Harr~w Company; Wiard Plow Company; Bucher &
Gibbs Plow Company; American Scale Company; Potato Imple-
ment Company; Southern Plow Company; Aspinwall-Watson Com-
pany; Massey-Harris Company; Cyclone Seeder Company; S. L.
Allen & Company; J. E. Porter Corporation; Hansman Manufactur-
ing Company; Vacuu:Ql Cotton Harvester Company; Flexible Steel
Lacing Company; The Dayton Rubber Manufacturing Company;
Delta Manufac.turing Company; The Ohio Valley Pulley Works; Rich-
'ards-Wilcox Company; Alemite Corporation; Detroit Belt Lacer Com-
pany; Spadone Machine Company; The Gwilliam Company; Lincoln
Engineering Company; Brance-Knochy Company, Inc.; The Fafnir
BearIng Company; Raymond Mfg. Co.; Quick Repair Washer Company;
TiIhken )toller Bearing Company; Hyatt Roller Bearing Company;
Hardy-Newsom Company; Rust Cotton Picker Company; Allis-Chalmers
Manufacturing Company; John E. Mitchell Company; Cotton Harvester
Company of America; Reschke Machine Works Company; Benthall
Machine Company; New Idea Spreader Company; Platt Bros. & Co.,
Ltd., Ol~ham, England; Continental Gin Company; The Murray Com-
pany; Gullett Gin Company; Duplex Mill Manufacturing Company;
1. B. Rowell Company; The Silver Manufacturing Company; Peoria
Drill & Seeder Division, Farm Tools, Inc.; A. B. Farquhar Co., Ltd.;
A. T. Ferrell & Company; Letz Manufacturing Company; Prater Pul-
verizer-Com:t1any; Owensboro Ditcher & Grader Co.; The Austin-Western
Road Machinery Co.; Caterpillar Tractor Company; Firestone Rubber &
Tire Company; Dixie Cultivator Company; P. P. Haring; Brown Tool &
Machine Company; The Parsons Company; Cleland Manufacturing Co.;
J. L. Owens Company; H. D. Hudson Manufacturing Company; Spraco,
Incorporated; F. E. Meyers & Bros. Co.; The E. C. Brown Company;
ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
John Bean Manufacturing Co.; Messinger Manufacturing Co.; Niagara

Sprayer & Chemical Co., Inc.; Frank Rose Manufacturing
, Co.; Hammer
Blow Tool Co.; Springfield Wagon & Trailer Co.; The Meili-Blumberg
Co., Inc.; Chevrolet Motor Company; Leach Bros. ·Mfg. Co.; S. Howes
Company~ Inc.; G. A. Kelly Plow Company; Deere & Company.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREF.AClt TO TjiE SECOND EDITION. V
,
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION . . Vll
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . • • , • IX
PART I
. IMPORTANCE OF FARM MACHINERY TO AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER 1
I. FARM MACHINERY AND ITs RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 1
PART II
PRINCIPLES
, OF FARM MACHINERY
JI. MECHANICS. . . . . . . . . 5
III. FRICTION AND ITs REMEDY . . . 11
IV. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. . 15
V. TRANSJ(!:ISSION OF POWER AND ELEMENTS OF MACHINES. . 19
VI. SELECTION OF FARM MACHINERY. . . . . . . . . . . . 42
PART III
SOIL PREPARATION MACHINERY
VII. THE PLOW BOTTOM AND ITS PARTS 47
VIII. PLOW ACCESSORIES. .../. . . 57
IX. MOLDBOARD-PLOW TYPES / . 63
X. DI~K-PLOW TYPES ../. . . . 77
XI. PLOW DESIGN. . 84
XII. PLOW HITCHES . . . • ,.', 89
XIII. DRAFT OF PLOWS . . . . . 101
XIV. PLOW TROUBLES, ADJUSTMENTS, DUTY, COST OF OPERATION, AND
LAYING OUT FIELDS FOR PLOWING. . . . . . . • . • . , . , . . 108
PART IV
SEED-BED PREPARATION MACHINERY
J
XV. STALK CUTTER, HARROWS, LAND ROLLERS, AND DRAGS. .... 120
PART V
SEEDING MACHINERY
XVI. CORN PLANTERS. . 145
XVII. COTTON PLANTERS. . . • • 159
Xl1 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
XVIII. MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF Row PLANTERS . 174
XIX. SEEDING MACHINERY FOR SMALL GRAINS . ..184
PAJ;lT VI
CULTIV ATING MACHINERY
'xx. CULTIVATORS . • . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . 200
PART VII
DUSTI~G AND SPRAYING MACHINERY
XXI. DUSTING AND SPRAYING EQUIPMENT . . 225
!l
PART VIII
HARVESTING MACHINERY
,
..
XXII. HAY HARVESTING MACHINERY . .
XXIII. GRAIN HARVESTING MACHINERY. . . . •
237
267
XXIV. CORN ,HARVESTING MACHINERY . . . . . 292
XXV. MISCELLANEOUS HARVESTING MACHINERY 305
PART IX
SEED PREPARATION MACHINERY
XXVI. GRAIN THRESHERS. . . , . , . . . . . . 319
XXVII.jCOMBINED HARVESTER-THRES~R . . , . . 336
XXVIII. CORN SHELLERS, HUSKERS, AND SHREDDERS. 350
XXIX. THE COTTON GIN AND EQUIPMENT. . 356
PART X
FEED PREPARATION MACHINERY
XXX. FEED GRINDERS. 377
XXXI. SILAGE CUTTERS. . . . 387
PART XI
FERTlLIZING MACHINERY
XXXII. MANURE SPREADERS . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
XXXIII. COl\[MERCIAL FERTILIZER DISTRIBUT(lRS, 405
PART XII
TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT
XXXIV, WAGONS, MOTOR TRUCKS, AND 'TRAILERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
CONTENTS xiii
PAGE
PART XIII
CLEl\.NING AND GRADING MACHINERY
CHAPTER
XXXV. CLEANERS AJ.'1D GRADERS ~ . . . . 429
PART XIV
SOIL-AND-WATER CONSERVATION MACHINERY
XXXVI. TERRACING MACHINERY. . . . . . . 438
INDJ!lX . . • • • • • • . . . .... . .. . 449
PART I
IMPORTANCE OF FARM MACHINERY TO AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER I
FARM MACHINERY AND ITS RELATION TO AGRICULTURE

In the beginning all crops for the sustenance of mankind were produced
and prepared by human muscles. Many centuries passed before the
power of animal muscles was used to relieve those of the human being.
With the discovery of iron, tools were fashioned that further relieved the
labor of human muscles. The transition from subsistence farming to
this modern power-farming age was at first slow, but with tq.e develop-
ment of the steel plow, the internal-combustion engine, and other modern
.farm machiIie&t~the movement has accelerated beyond the wildest dreams
of our· forefathers. The changes brought about during the past decade
have so tremendously affected human values .that one wonders what
effect farm machines of the future will have on our welfare.
1: Machinery Reduces Hours of Labor.-The effect of the mechaniza-
tion of agriculture is shown in the number of man-hours requiryd to grow
and harvest an acre of wheat yielding 20 bushels. In 1830, when the
grain was sown by hand and harvested by hand with ft cradle, 55.7 man-
hours were required. In 1896 with the use of the horse-drawn drill and
binder, it took 8.8 man-hours; while in 1930 with the tractor-dr~wn drills
and combine, it required only 3.3 man-hours. 1 The use of rubber-tired
equipment will, no doubt, further reduce the requirements. Similar
reductions in man-hour requirements have 1?een made in the production
of most field crops. Cotton, as a whole, requires more man-hours in its
production than any of the major crops grown. The average number of
man-hours required to grow 1 acre of cotton in the High Plains region of
Texas is 10.25 with one-row horse-drawn equipment, 6.4 man-hours with
two-row, horse-drawn equipment, 5.15 man-hours with two-row tractor
outfits, and 4 man-hours with four-row tractor machines. An average of
14.2 man-hours per acre are required to harvest an acre of cotton. 2
Farmers in central Iowa usually expend from 6 to 12 man-hours of labor
• 1 U. S. Dept; Agr., Misc. Rept. 157, p. 2, 1933.

~ Texas Agr. Expt. Sta., unpublished data, 1936.
1
per acre in seed bed preparation, planting, and cultivating corn. With
certain combinations of equipment and methods at Iowa State College,
however, the requirements were only from 3 to 5 man-hours per acre.
2. Good Equipment Reduces' Production Costs.-Much has been
accomplished through the use of modern farm machines in reducing cost of
.producing farm crops. It is not hard to visualize the difference in the
cost of producing an acre of wheat in 1830 as compared to that of 1930.
Studies made in the High Plains region of Texas· on the production of
cotton show the influence of types of farm machines on production costs. 1
To grow and harvest a pound of cotton, where the average yield was
180 pounds per acre, cost 9.2 cents with one-row, and 8.86 cents with two-
row horse-drawn equipment, and 7.59 cents with two-row, and 6.77 cents
with four-row tractor equipment. Interest and rent are included in thes;}
costs.
Production costs are also influenced by soil type, topography, climate,
kind of crop, and the size and contour of the field.
3. Special Machines for Special Crops.-The nature of plant growth
is such that only a few farm machines are adapted to more than one crop.
Planters for planting row crops by minor changes will sow the seeds of
most field row crops. Grain drills w,ill plant the seeds of all the small
grains, but special attachments are needed for the small grass seeds.
Row-crop cultivators are suitable for all crops grown in rows spaced from
36 to 42 inches apart. Broadcast binders, combines, and threshers can be
adjusted to satisfactorily handle any of the broadcast crops and some of
the row crops. Some of the one-crop machines are the corn picker,
potato planter and digger, beet digger, cotton harvester, and cotton gin.
Plows and harrows are indispensable in the preparation of the seed bed for
all row and broadcast crops: '
4. Rubber Tires on Farm Machines.-Numerous tests with tractors
and other farm machines equipped with rubber tires reveal the relative
advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of rubber-tired tractors are: (1) higher operating speeds,
(2) less power required for same load, (3) less fuel consumption, (4)
decreased rolling resistance, (5) less vibration, (6) easIer handling quali-
ties, and (7) greater comfort for the operator.2
Disadvantages are: (1) difficulty of holding on listed ground, (2)
greater slippage on wet soil, (3) greater initial cost, (4) possibility of
·punctures.
When used on other farm machines, such as combines, potato planters
and diggers, and sprayers, rubber tires reduce the drawbar pull, fuel
1 Texas Agr. Expt ..Sta., unpublished data, 1936.
2 Agr. Eng., Vol. 14, No.2, p. 39, 1933; Vol. 16, No.2, p. 45, 1935; Vol. 17, No.
2, p. 73, 1936,
FARM MACHINERY AND ITS RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 3
consumed by the tractor, vibration and dust, ,and make transportation

easier from field to field and along highways.
Adaptation of rubber tires to all types of farm machines is retarded
primarily by the expense of making the change.
o. Machinery for Terraced Fields.-The expansion of soil and water
conservation on farms has created a need for specially designed farm
machines that will operate efficiently on terraced fields. Manufacturers
have engineers studying the problems and, no doubt, will in the near
future produce plows, planters, cultivators, and harvesters that will be
flexible enough to operate satisfactorily on terraced and contoured lands.
6. Bre~ding Crops to Suit Machinery.-Certain field crops do not
readily lend themselves to machine harvesting. Varieties of grain
sorghum have drooping heads that make it difficult to head them without
cutting excessively long stems. Plant breeders have developed varieties
of sorghum that have straight and erect heads. Corn cannot be combined
in the North because it does not dry rapidly and shell easily. It could
be combined in the South where it matures early. Cotton does not
mature its fruit uniformly and produces long vegetative and fruiting
branches with an abundance of foliage, thus making it difficult to harvest
with machinery. Plant breeders have made considerable progress in
developing a type of cotton plant that is more suitable to machine
harvesting. 1
7. Farm Management.-Farm machines designed for higher speeds,
constructed 'of heat-treated steels, and equipped with more durable
bearings will lessen operating time and lower costs. Terracing and con-
touring of fields will cause changes in farming practices, both in types of
machiilery used and in cropping systems. In the past, machines were
designed for large farms, but now the trend is to develop machinery for the
small farms. These and various other factors will materially affect the
management of farm labor and equipment.
8. The Future.-Improvements in farm machinery during the past
decade continue so rapidly that one wonders what the future holds.
Rather than forecast for th~future several questions are enumerated:
1. Will a new steel for moldboard plows, that recently scoured well during tests
made in Texas, make the disk plow obsolete?
2. Will the rotary tillage type of plow be extensively used?
3. Will a large percentage of the cotton crop be harvested mechanically in the
near future?
4. Will a new type of stalk cutter be developed to cut standing cotton, corn, and
sorghum stalks into short sections that can be readily covered and that will not inter-
fere with the planting and cultivating of the next crop?
5. Will a sorghum header be developed that will cut the stems of uniform length
below the heads? Will this lead to the development of a grain-sorghum combine?
1 Texas Ag:. Expt. Sta. Bull 452. p. 54, 1932 and 511, p. 32, 1935.
6. Will the plows, planters, cultivators, and harvesters of the future be equipped,
with rubber tires and antifriction bearings?
7. Will beets be pulled and topped automatically with machinery?
8. Will the auto trailer displace the old-time farm wagon?
9. Will the farm machine of the future be provided with accessories designed for
comfort of the operator?
Numerous other questions may be cited but these are sufficient to

show the possibility for improving farm machinery in the future.
PART II
PRINCIPLES OF FARM MACHINERY
CHAPTER II
MECHANICS
A clear conception of the fundamental principles of mechanics, as
well as their practical application to machinery, is necessary
, to a compre-
hensive study of farm machinery.
9. Force.-Force is the action of one body upon another which
tends to produce or destroy motion in the body acted upon. Force may
vary in magnitude and in method of application. In general, force is
associated with muscular exertion. This, however, does not completely
cover the scope and work of for~ because an electrical current, freezing
of a liquid, and ignition of explosives may exert a certain amount of
force. To be able to compare different Jorces, there must be some unit
by which to wmpare them. Such a unit is called the pound weight.
10. Work.-"\Vhenever a force is exerted to the extent that motion is
produced, work is performed. Work is measured by the product of
the force times the distance moved. There is a distinction between the
term work in common use, and the term work used scientifically. The
latter is referred to above. By this it can be seen that a man could'
have worked very hard and become fatigued but not have accomplished
any work in a scientific sense. For example, suppose a man pushes on
a door or gate all.day and fails to open it; physically he has worked and
is tired out, but scientifically he has not accomplished any work because
he did not open the door; the force applied did not move the door any
distance. The unit used in measuring work is the foot-pound, force being
,measured in pounds and distance in feet. A foot-"pound of work is
done when a body is moved 1 foot against a force of 1 pound weight.
The- amount of work required to place a 100-pound bag of grain on a
wagon which has a box 4 feet from the ground can be determined by
multiplying the weight, 100 pounds, by the height, 4 feet, which will
equal 400 foot-pounds of work done to place the bag of grain upon the
wagon.
11. Power.-Power is the rate of doing work. To determine the
power used or transmitted by a machine, the force must be measured,
5
6 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
also the distance through which the force acts, and the length of time
required for the force to act through this distance. The units of power
ordinarily used in America are the foot-pound per second, the foot-pound
per minute, and the horsepower. '
If a body is moved 1 foot per second against a force of 1 pound weight,
the rate of work is 1 foot-pound per second. If it moves 1 foot per minute
against the same force the rate is 1 foot-pound per minute. If it moves
so that 33,000 foot-pounds are done each minute, the rate is 1 horsepower.
The horsepower is based on the rate that a 1,500-pound horse can do
work. If such a horse pulls 150 pounds, 10 per cent of its weight, and
moves at the rate of 220 feet per minute, or 272' miles per hour, it would do I
33,000 foot-pounds of work per minute, this being equal to 150 times 220
or 33,000 foot-pounds, or 1 horsepower.
'12. Simple Machines.-A machine is a device that gives a mechanical
advantage which facilitates the doing of work. It is usually associated'"
with such tools as grain binders, threshing machines, mowing machines,
and other machines. But really such machines are ~ade up of many
simple machines. ,
There are six simple machines; namely, the lever, the wheel and ?-xle,
the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw. These can
be reduced to three, which are the lever, the inclined plane, and the
pulley. Any simpl~ machine is capable of transmitting work done upon
it to some other body. The mechanical advantage of a machine is the
ratio of the force delivered by the machine to the force applied. The
force which operates the machine is called the applied force. The effi-
ciency of the machine is the ratio, of the work accom,plished by the
machine to the work applied to the machine. If the efficiency of a
machine could be 100 per, cent, perpetual motion would exist. Since
there is always a loss due to friction, the efficiency of the machine falls
below 100 per cent.
13. The Lever.-The lever is a rigid bar, straight or curved, which
rotates about a fixed point called the fulcrum. It has an applied force
and a resisting force that are well defined by their names. The lever
arms for a straight bar are the parts or ends on each side of the fulcrum
if the forces act perpendicular to the bar. The mechanical advantage'
of the lever is the ratio of the length of the lever arm of the applied force
to the length of the arm of the resistance force, or
Weight X weight arm = applied force X force arm.
Levers are~of three classes (Fig. 1). In the lever of the first clas$
the applied force is at one end and the resisting force or force exerted.
by the object to be moved at the other. The fulcrum, or fixed point, is
placed between the applied and the resisting forces . Such a lever may
MECHANICS
have a mechanical advantage of any value, depending directly upon the

length of the lever arm between the fulcrum and the point of applied
forces as compared with the length of the lever arm between the fulcrum
and the point of resisting force. The majority of levers found on farm
machinery will fall in this class.
Levers of the second class have the applied force at one end, the
fulcrum at the other, and the re~ting force between them. This class
of levers will have a mechanical advantage that will always be greater
than unity. As in the case of the lever of the first class, a lever of the
second class also sacrifices speed and distance for a gain in pull or force ..
'0:. A lever of the third class has the resisting force at one end, the fulcrum
at the other, and the applied force between them. The mechanical
Weight
Applied force .'
EB !
Fulcrum,,.. I
First C ass
Welqhf
[f]
f S econ d Class ...
fulcrum
Applied Fotceif~
Weight
If] .,
Fulcrum
t Third Class
~pplied Force
FIG. l.-The three classes of levers. FIG. 2.-Wheel and axle.
advantage of this kind of lever is always less than unity, and, unlike the
two previous classes, work is sacrificed for a gain in speed and distance.
~n ordinary crane is a rever of this kind.
14. The Wheel and Axle.-(Fig. 2.) This is a modification of the
lever, and acts on the same principle,. only the forces operate constantly.
The center of the axle corresponds to the fulcrum, the radius of the axle
to the short arm, and the radius of the wheel to the long arm. The
mechanical advantage is expressed by the equation:
F X R = W X r.
where W = weight.
F .= force applied.
R = radius of wheel.
r = radius of axle.
16. The Pulley.-A pulley consists of a grooved wheel turning freely in
a frame called a block and is a lever of the first or second class. There are
several different applications of pulleys depending on their arrangement.
A single fixed pulley .affords no mechanical advantage except to change
the direction of motion. When one or more fixed pulleys and one or
more movable pulleys (Fig. 3) are used in combination, they form the
block and tackle. The mechanical advantage varies directly as the
number of ropes that support the movable pulley and 'the weight,
w X h = F X 3h.
or
w
Ii' = 3 theoretical mechanical advantage
where w = weight:
h = distance weight moves.
F = force applied.
3 = number of ropes supporting w.
FIG. 3.-B1ock and tackle. FIG. -i.-

Differential
ho~t.
The differential pulley (Fig. 4) is a modificatiqn of a block and tackle

but differs in that the. two pulleys D and C are of different radii and rotate
as one piece about a fixed axis B. The endless chain passes under and
supports the movable pulley G and any weight attached to it. To raise a
load, force is applied downward to chain F, which will rotate pulleys C,
D, and G, causing the chain to wind up on the larger fixed pulley D and
unwind on the smaller fixed pulley C, thus raising movable pulley G.
In operation consider that point D of the section of chain DH moves up
through an arc whose length is equal to BD. At the same time the point
G of the section of chain CA will.move downward an arc, a <;listance
equal to BG. The length of the chain loop DHAG will be shortened to
MECHANICS 9
BD - . BC, which will cause pulley G to be raised half this amount. P,

the pulley force, is then applied to the section of chain EF and the weight (
W. is lifted at G. The mechanical
advantage wiII be:
P X BD = W X ~~(BD
(
- BC).
16. The Inclined Plane.-The
inclined plane, shown in Fig. 6, is an
even surface sloping at any angle
between the horizontal and the'
vertical.
The law or principle which governs
the inclined plane in mechanics is
that the force applied is increased as FIG. 5.-Geared differential hoists.
many times as the length of the A, worm-geared hoist; B, planetary_
inclined plane is greater than the geared hoist. •
elevation H. Briefly, it is equal to the length over the height, varying

f (j with the direction in which the force is applied.
~H Inst~ad of lifting. the entire weight of the object
~~ vertIcally, part IS supported on the plane and
:IG. ~l-The inclin~ part by the force. Referring to Fig. 6, if F'
plane. causes the weight W to move from A to C and
parallel to the plane, the work done is F times AC, while the work
done against gravity is the weight W times CE
if friction is disregarded, or briefly,
F X AC = W X CEo •
I
If the force is parallel to the base AE, the advantage
would be
F X AE = W X CEo
17. The Screw.-The screw (Fig. 7) is the

application or modification of the inclined plane
combined with that of the lever. The threads wind-
ing around a cylinder bear the same relation to
the inclined plane that a winding staircase bears
to a straight one. When the screw is turned on its
axis with the aid of a lever or gear, its sloping
thread causes the load to move slowly .in the FIG. 7. -Screw 0Per_
direction of its vertical axis. The vertical distance ated by miter gears.
between threads is called the pitch of the screw.
The mechanical advantage is figured upon the condition that the
10. FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
applied force moves through a distance equal to the circumference

of a circle whose radius is the length of the jackscrew
bar or the. radius of the driving gear, while the weight
is being moved through a distance equal to the pitch of the
screw.
18. The Wedge.-The wedge is a modification of the
inclined plane. Really it consists of two inclined planes placed
FIG. 8.- base to base (Fig. 8). The force pushing on the wedge
Wedge. into .any material, such as a log, will cause forces to act
perpendicular to each of the two faces of the wedge.
CHAPTER III
FRICTION AND ITS REMEDY
The chief cause for machinery wearing out can probably be attributed
to improper and insufficient lubrication. Much of this can be traced
to the poor construction of bearings and the failure to provide adequate
means of conducting the lubricant to the bearing units. The whole
need for lubrication is due to friction.
19. Friction.-Friction is pelpful in clutches and to prevent slippage
of belts on pulleys. It is that force which acts between two bodies
at their surface of contact so as to resist the sliding of one body on
another. When any object is being dragged along upon any other
object, friction between the two tends to stop the one that is being
dragged. When one surface rests upon another, there is a tendency for
the inequalities of the one to fit into those of the other producing an
interlocking not unlike that produced by putting the cutting edges of
two saws together. If SU9h interlocking has occurred, it is only possible
to move one body over that of the other by separating them or by tearing
off the interlocking 'surfaces. No matter how smooth the surfaces may
be, there are still some elevations and depressions remaining which will
permit a small degree of interlocking.
20. Rolling Friction.-When one body rolls upon another, the friction
is very much less than where one body is sliding upon another. The
resistance in this case is called the rolling resistance or friction. This
can readily qe demonstrated by attempting to carry as much upon a
sled' which has no wheels as upon a wagon or any other vehicle which
is ,mounted on wheels. Many of the farm implements are now using
some type of antifriction bearing in the form of balls or rollers to diminish
the amount of friction. The use of such bearings reduces friction and
the efficiency of the machine is materially increased. Friction in moving
parts of machinery causes wasted energy and it is, therefore, desirable
to reduce it to the smallest possible amount.
21. Lubrication as a Remedy for Friction.-Lubrication tends to
reduce friction. The theory of the action of lubrication is that a thin
film of the lubricant adheres to the bearing and another to the shaft and
completely separates the metal surfaces. Then, these films slip one on the
other reducing the amount of friction. This is because the friction of lub-
ricants is much less than that between the metal parts. A lubricant may
act in different ways in reducing the amount of friction: first, by causing
11
the greater part of the resistance to be due to the slipping of oil over
oil; second, that a lubricant fills up the small depressions in the two
frictional surfaces and in this way prevents the so-called interlocking.
22. Forms of Lubricants.-Lubri<;!ants are available in three forms:
fluid oils, semisolid, a,nd solid. Fluid oils a,re those that flow freely, such
as, gas engine cylinder oiJs and oils used for lubricating various bearings
by means of oil holes or oil cups. Semisolids include the soft greases,
transmission, aJ;ld differential grease. Solid lubricants consist of graphite
and mica. Of these forms, soft greases and oils are most generally used
to lubricate farm implements.
23. Kinds and Sources of Lubricants.-All lubricants have three
general sources: animal, vegetable, and mineral. Animal oils are lard,
tallow, and fish oils. Vegetable oils are cotton-seed oil, castor oil, olive
oil, and linseed oil. Mineral oils are oils obtained by refining crude
petroleum. Of all these, mineral oils are. the most universally used on
the farm, because they can withstand higher temperatures without
breaking down.
24. Use of Lubricants.-GiIP says: "The cardinal principle under-
lying all lubrication is to use the thinnest (or least viscous) oil that will
stay in place and do the work." It naturally follows that a thin or
light oil should be used for light work and as the load increases the
. lubricant should be heavier. Where the speed of the
sliding surfaces is relatively high, and the pressure of the
bearing is not a heavy one, thin oil will render the best
service. If the bearing carries a heavy load 'and slides
slowly, the heavy oil is best.
FIG. 9.- The number of r.p.m. will determine the frequency with
Com m 0 n which lubricants should be, applied. On a mower the main
grease cup. axle may not require oil more than once or twice during a
day's operation, while the bearings on the crank shaft and pitman wheel
need an application of oil every thirty minutes, at least.
Where greases or semisolid oils are used, the selection of the right
grade of grease is important. Usually there are four grades: I, 2, 3, and 4.
The softest of these is No.1, while the hardest is No.4.
4 26. Grease Cups.-On farm machinery most of the slow-moving
parts are lubricated by means of grease ·placed in cups which have
threaded caps into which the grease is placed (Fig. 9). When the cap is
screwed down upon the cup, the grease is forced into the bearing. Some of
these caps have a device attached to prevent losing, but in the majority of
cases they are simply screwed on.
The grease used should be comparatively soft, a No.2 or 3, (never
harder than No.3) so that it can be forced through the small opening
1 GILL, A. H:, in Rogers and Amherst's, 'Jlndustrial Chemistry."
FRICTION AND ITS REMEDY 13
into the bearing. If a very hard grease is used, difficulty will be encoun-
tered in forcing it through into the bearing and in most cases insufficient
lubrication will be the result. If a cup is placed upon the end of a long
. pipe through which the grease must be forced, it is very likely that the
FIG. lO.-Alemite gat and hand grease guns, hose, and fittings.
grease within the pipe will dry out to such an extent that it will be
impossible to force the grease through into the bearing. It is generally
better, therefore, to have as short a distance between the grease cups
and the bearings as possible.
26. High-pressure Lubrication.-With the great improvements and
modernization 1"of farm machinery has come
a change in the handling of machinery by
farmers who use it. Farmers today realize
that equipment is no better than the care
taken of it and that efficient farm machinery
now manufactured is capable of long hours
of service only when kept welllubricat-ed and
in good operating condition.
The greater speed acquired through more
powerful tractor engines and pneumatic tires
would be lost unless the servicing of the
machinery was done quickly, thoroughly, and
effectively. Faulty lubrication would also
soon extract an eventual toll in the form of
FIG. ll.-Hydraulic grease
breakdowns that mean expensive repair bills gun and fittings , showing cross-
and delays just when the machinery may be section of n02fzie and fitting.
needed most.
Farm machinery manufacturers realize the importance of good lubrica-
tion and are now equipping most farm machines with either Alemit&
(Fig. 10) or hydraulic fittings (Fig. 11). A survey of 5,000 farms has
disclosed the use of 433 high-pressure fittings on the machipery on the
A Strong pressed steel handle

B AutomCltic spring return
C Pressed steel handle grip
D Closely fitted steel plunger, ground cmd polishecA
E Ball check vPllve
F Gasket seal
G StdndClrdg'pipe eClsily cha.ngea toany ~p.cIClllength
H Gun heaa CClsting, made of speciClI Cliloy beClring meted
I SeClling gClsket prevents leaks
J Nozzle for kleenseCll, hydnwlic, Clna <:III push type fittings
K Non-crossCfble thre<:ld
L Cold dr<:lwn steel fonower rod
M ExtrOi heavy wall steel tubing
N Po51tive priming spring
o Spring guide
P Strong pressed steel tube end
Q Locking pin that holds follower rod in bOlrrel OIsshown
R Knurled steel knob
S Tempered steel spring, thQt pushes the follower entire length
of gun bOlrrel
T ExtrCl cup leather, sogun barrel cOIn be filled by suction
U Two(2) heQvyduty greQse Clnd oil resisting cup leathers,with
hoovy steel follower on both sides
FIG. 12.-Cross-section. of Lincoln grease gun.
average 80-acre tractor farm. 1 These fittings are distributed on the

various machines as follows:
Fittings Fittings
Tractor .................... . 20 Ensilage cutter ............ . 25

Tractor plow ............... . 12 Hay rake-... ,.............. . 12
Sulky plow ................. . 10 Hay loader.' .............. . 38
Disk harrow ................ . 12 Cultivator .................. . 12
Mower .................... . 7 Grain drill .... _ ........... . 30
Corn planter ............... . 10 Farm wagon .............. . 6
WindmilL ............ : .... . 2 Feed grinders ............. . 8
Manure spreader ............ . 1-7 Pump jack ............... . 2
Grain binder ............... ;. 40 Corn binder .............. . 40
Thresher .................... . 70 Automobile ............... . 20
Corn sheller ........... : .... . 15 Trucks ................... . 25
1 Stewart-1Varner Corporation, Alemite Division.

CHAPTER IV
MATERIALS OF ,CONSTRUCTION
The strength, durability, and service of a farm implement depend
largely upon the kind and quality of the material used in building it.
There is a tendency in the construction of implements to eliminate as
many castings as possible and to use pressed and stamped steel. Where
this is done, the cost of manufacturing machinery in quantities is mate-
rially reduced. The weight of the machine is also reduced but the
strength and durability are retained and often improved. The success
or failure of an implement frequently depends upon ~he material used
in building it.
27. Woo d.-Today iron and steel have practically taken the place
of wood. There are perhaps two reasons for this: first, steel is more
durable; second, it is becoming cheaper than good wood because of the
scarcity of the latter. Many farm machines are defective because
the wood used in their construction is not well cured and free from knots.
The wood parts should be well painted.
28. C.ast Iron.-Cast iron is iron containing so much carbon, or its
equivale;t, that it is not usefully malleable at any temperature, The
amount of carbon varies from 2.2 to 4.3 per cent, depending on the
amount of silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, and manganese,
There are two grades of cast iron-gray cast iron where the carbon
is segregated from the iron in the form of graphite, and white cast iron
which has carbon and iron combined. Another grade is often mentioned,
mottled cast iron, which is a mixture of the gray and white. Cast iron
is made by combining pig iron and scrap 'iron and pouring the molten
metal into sand molds of the desired shape, where it is allowed to cool
before it is cleaned and made ready for use.
Cast-iron castin&,) are generally large, bulky, very brittle, and cannot
be hammered to any great extent without breaking. They cannot be
forged but can be cemented together by brazing or welding. The
brazing process is accomplished by heating the broken parts to a welding
heat and applying a brazing compound. Welding is' accomplished by
using an oxy-acetylene gas flame.
29. Malleable Cast Iron.-Malleable iron is annealed white cast
iron in which the carbon has been separated from the iron without
forming flakes or graphite as in the gray cast iron. It will bend to a
limited extent without breaking.
' Hi FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
The process of making malleable cast iron consists of melting the

white pig iron, with scrap, in the furnace and pouring rapidly into sand
molds while very hot. After cooling, the castings are cleaned and made
ready for annealing. The annealing pots are usually of cast iron. The
castings are packed in these pots along with iron scale (iron oxide) which
acts as a decarburizer and causes much of the brittle quality to dis-
appear. The annealing pots containing the castings and iron scale are
placed in an oven and the temperature raised to a cherry-red heat, 'about
1450° F., a.n d held there from 3 to 5 days, depending on the size of the
castings and the amount of decarbonizing desired, Then, the furnace
is allowed to cool slowly for a few days before the castings are removed
and cleaned. Malleable cast iron is used extensively in building farm
machinery and for various kinds of hardware.
30. Chilled Cast Iron.-Chilled cast iron is cast iron poured into
molds which have a part of the mold made of metal instead of sand.
This meta] causes the molten iron, that comes in contact with the metal,
to cool more rapidly than the balance of the casting, thus forming a
hard surface. The metal portion of the mold must be heated to a
Q
temperature of about 350 F. before pouring to prevent explosions when
the hot metal strikes the cold. Chilled cast-iron moldboards for plow
bottoms show that the iron fibers are brought perpendicular to the surface
where the metal is chilled.
31. Wrought Iron.-Wrought iron is nearly pure iron, with some
slag, and is used in forge work as it is readily welded and easy to work.
Wrought iron has very little carbon in it, ranging from 0.05"to 0.10 per
cent. It is expensive, however, and a mild steel is used to a considerable
extent in place' of it. The commercial fqrm is obtained by rolling the hot
iron into bars or plates from' which nails, bolts, nuts, wire, chains, and
many other products are made.
32. Steel.-Steel is a variety of iron classed between cast iron and
wrought iron, very tough and, when tempered, hard and elastic. The
hardness of steel is determined principally by its carbon content but is
influenced by the percentage of manganese, phosphorus, and sulphur.
The American Society of Automotive Engineers bas a numeral index
system which is used to identify the composition of the various graq,es of
carbon, manganese, nickel, molybdenum, chromium, chromium-
vanadium, and tungsten steels. For example, a mild carbon steel carries
an A.S.E. No. Id20 and contains 0.15 to 0.25 per cent of carbon. A
medium carbon steel is nUfi'!.bered 1045 and contains 0.40 to 0.50 per cent
of carbon. High carbon spring steel is A.S.E. No. 1095 and contains 0.90
to 1.05 per cent of carbon. In manganese, nickel, molybdenum, and
other steels extra percentages of these elements are added to impart
toughness and other special properties.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 17
32a. Structural Steel.-8tructural steel comes in the form of angle irons,
I-beams, channels, tee bars, round and square rods, tubes, plates and
strips, as shown .in Fig. 13. The steel used in these pieces is made by one
of two processes; open-hearth. and Bessemer. The former process gives
the best grade of material, but is more expensive; hence, we find in agri-
cultural machinery the latter kind being used. The steel is first made
into large bars and then rolled into ~he various shapes.
L
Angle
I
I· Beam
U
Channel Zee Bar
TO
Tee Bar Hollow Square
u
U-Bar Redangle
FIG. 13.-Types of structural steel.
33. Soft-center Steel.-8oft-center steel consists of three layers of

steel, as shown in Fig. 14; two layers of hard steel
-J
placed on the outside
and welded to an inner layer of soft steel. In this manner a hard surface
is obtained without brittleness. S~ter steel is used on plow bottoms.
34. Case-hardened Ste~1.-This steel closely resembles soft-center
steel since the outer surfaces are hardened leaving a soft center (Fig. 15).
It is made by heating soft or mild steel in contact with carbon so that
the carbo!! will penetrate the outer skin, making a high-carbon steel
FIG. H.-Soft-centered steel. FIG. 15.-Case-hardened steel often passed

as soft-centered steel.
surface which is very hard. The objection to this type of soft-center

steel is that the hardened surface is not of uniform depth. The surfaces
of cams are usually case hardened.
35. Cast Steel.-Cast steel is a steel that is cast. It can be se.cured
in varying degrees of hardness and makes a more durable casting than the
best grade of cast iron. It is used mostly in gearing. Not much of it is
found in agricultural machinery.
36. Brass.-Ordinary brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Some
commercial brasses contain smi111 percentages of lead, tin, and iron. The
percentage of copper in brass may range from 60 to 90 per cent, and the
percentage of zinc from 10 to 40 per cent.
37. Bronze.-Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. However, zinc is,

sometimes added to cheapen the alloy or change its color and increase
its malleability. The percentage of tin in bronze may vary from 5 to
20 per cent. Phosphor-bronze, manganese bronze, and aluminum bronze
are special copper alloys containing small percentages of tin, zinc, or
aluminum.
38. Babbitt.-Babbitt is a tin-base alloy containing small amounts of
copper and antimony. Good babbitt for automobile be\1rings should
contain 7 per cent copper, 9 per cent antimony, and 84 per cent tin.
39. Solder.-Common solder contains about one part tin and one part
lead. Hard plumber's solder contains two parts tin and one part lead.
HEAT TImATMENTS OF MATERIALS
Heat treatment is a term used when heating and .cooling processes,

through a range of temperatures, are applied to steel to improve the
structure and produce desirable characteristics. Such treatmellts include
annealing, hardening, tempering, and case-hardening.
Plow beams, disk plow, and disk-harrow blades are examples of parts
of agricultural machines that are heat treated in order to make more
serviceable implements.
CHAPTER V
TRANSMISSION OF POWER AND ELEMENTS OF MACHINES
It is not always possible to transmit power by one continuous shaft
directly from the source at which it is generated to the point where it
is consumed. It is necessary, therefore, to have some other means by
w'hich power can be transmitted in order that work may be done. The
principal methods used are belts in connection with pulleys and spafts,
sprockets and chains, gears, triangles, and electricity.
In the study of farm machinery it is necessary to notice a good many
points that cannot always be brought out in the discussion of the indi-
vidual machine. These elements of a machine include such things as
bearings, bushings, gears, clutches, and the various minor parts that will
have an influ'ence on the value and the lasting qualities of the machine.
FIG. l6.-Different kinds of belting:

a, leather; b, stitched canvas; c, balata; d, rubber; e, solid woven.
40. Belts.-Whenever it'is necessary to transmit power some distance

between shafts or from some point where it is not possible to use a set
of gears, belting is used. The purpose of a belt drive is to carry a certain
amount of power from one revolving pulley to another. Then, a good
definition for a belt may be given as follows: A belt is any flexible material
placed around two pulleys, having a certain amount of tension, to trans-
mit the power from one pulley to another. Such a definition, of course,
includes ropes and chains, since they are of flexible material, but in the
true sense of the word, we always think of them as "chain belts" or
"rope belts," and the term belt is always applied to the flat strand of
leather, rubber, canvas, or other similar material stretched on pulleys.
41. Kinds of Belts.-The different kinds of belts used by the average
farmer are leather, rubber, canvas, and woven cotton (Fig. 16). It is
generally considered that the leather belting is the best type that can be
secured. It is also the most expensive, but has longer life than any of the
other kinds, if it is given proper care and protection.
19
42. Leather Belting.-Leather belti~g should be used only under the

best conditions, that is, it should be kept dry and in a protected place,
free from grease, dirt, and oil. Lea~her belting may consist of single
leather which is one thickness or double leather belting composed of
two thicknesses cemented togetber. Double leather belts are made for
special purposes and can. be used to advantage only over extra-large
pulleys. It is generally advisable to use single leather belting if one, or
both, of the pulleys is less than 12 inches in diameter and double leather
belting where, both pulleys are over 12 inches in diameter. Where tIt
belt has been spliced, it should be placed on the pulley to run in such a
direction that the thin edge of the splice will be on the inside of the belt,
and for the first part of the splice to run over the pulley. The splice of
the double b'elt should run with the thin edge pointing away from the
direction of travel.
In placing leather belts on the pulley always place the hair side next
to the pulley for this gives less slippage. It is considered that the softest
part of the belt is on the flesh side and when run in this manner the
flesh side is not so liable to crack as the hair side of the belt. Then,
the hair side is much smoother and more friction can be obtained between
the belt and the pulley ~urface-thus eliminating, to a large extent,
slippage. Jones 1 found that the hair or grain side would transmit from
one to three times as much power as the flesh side, depending on the belt,
the tension, and the condition of service.
43. Rubber Belting.-The next best type of belt that can be secured
is the rubber belt (Fig. 16). It has uniformity in thickness, will stand
variation in temperature without being injured greatly, and is not affected
when exposed to action of steam and water. There is not so much belt
slippage as in the case of the leather belt, hence, less tension is required
and the bearings of the machine are'not subjected to such heavy strains.
It wears out more rapidly, however, especially if the edges are rubbing
against any object. It also has a disadvantage in that it will stretch and
the distance between the 'pulleys will have to be regulated or the belt cut
and reI aced for good operation, The foundation of rubber belting
consists of cotton ducking which is specially treated with a rubber
compound. The compound is applied and forced into the ducking by
pressure. The whole is then vulcanized and placed under a very heavy
pressure which removes all superfluous stretch and unites the rubber
and duck into one inseparable body. It is generally considered that
a three-ply rubber or a four-ply cotton belt is equal in strength to a
single-ply leather belt and a six-ply rubber belt is equal to a double
leather belt.
1 The Leather Belting Exchange.

TRANSMISSION OF POWER AND ELEMENTS OF MACHINES 21
In the making of the rubber belt the layers of canvas 'ducking are
often folded over and stitched along the edges. The vulcanizing of the
rubber to the canvas is supposed to _hold the central part of the belt
together; however, this is not always effected. If the edge of the belt
happens to rub against the tractor wheel, axle, or some ~ther object
and wears the stitching away, one complete fold of the belt may hang
loose. When this happens, the life of the belt is shortened.
44. Canvas Belting.-Canvas belting (Fig. 16) is made up of layers of
canvas stitched together through the center as well as along the edge~ It
~Mf.rE
N
FIG. 17.-Cross-sections of two makes of V-belts.
is a cheap belt and is used where rough handling is expected. It is not

adapted for use over pulleys having fixed distances between them but
should be used where distance between pulleys can be adjusted with
little difficulty; for example, running threshing machines, ensilage cut-
ters, and similar machines. A four-ply canvas belt is of the same
strength as a single-ply leather belt. A thick heavy canvas belt should
never be used on small pulleys.
45. Solid Woven-cotton Belts.-The woven-cotton belt (Fig. 16)
instead of being made up of layers of canvas ducking is woven somewhat
FIG. 1S.-Effect on tension of V -belts by pivoted and fixed motors.
• in the same manner as an ordinary lamp wick. It is made in various

widths and weights, proportional to the service required. It is treated
with a special material to withstand friction, dirt, and atmospheric
conditions.
46. V-belts.-V-belts are so named because of their shape (Fig. 17).
The pulley for this type of belt has a V-shaped groove (Fig. 19) to·fit the
belt. The V-belts proved their serviceability as fan belts on automo-
biles, and as a result they have been adapted for use on many farm
conveniences and some farm machines. Recently a combine harvester-
thresher was equipped with V-belts and adjustable pulleys. Fans on feed
mills are driven with a series of from three to four V-belts. Less slippage
is encountered when V-belts are used in gr:ooved pulleys than with fiat
belts on crown-faced pulleys.
47. Belt Lacing.-The most common type of belt lacing for ordinary
farm usage is the leather lacing. There are several ,methods of lacing f
belts which consist of a single straight lace, double straight lace, and
double hinge lace. The following are
good rules for lacing belts: First, for
belts 2 to 10 inches wide, place· the
holes Y2 to % inch from the side and
Ys inch from the end of the belt. The
second row should be at least 1%
inches from the end. For wider belts
these dimensions should be eVE\n
greater, the longer diameter of the·
FIG. 19.-V-belt drive using a four-~peed holes being parallel witH the side of
cone pulley.
the belt. Second, holes .in rubber and
in the different types of canvas belts should be made with a sharp belt
awl. HolE\s in leather belts should be made with an oval punch. Third,
for light work with large pulleys use the single straight lacing. Fourth,
for heavy work with large pulleys use the double straight lacing. Fifth,
for lacing rubber and canvas belts doing heavy work on large or small
W·
I
l oetroifl
hOOK
open
'cmd
closed
YlSeToo/
'
Closing machine
FIG. 20.-Methods of closing metal belt laces: Alligator above, Clipper below.
pulleys use the double hinge lacing. Sixth, the straight part of the lacing
should always be on the pulley side of the belt. Metal iaces for small belts
transmitting a small amount of power are quite satisfactory. Figure 20
shows two types of metal belt laces.
48. How to Lace a Belt.-Figure 21 shows a simple method of lacing
an ordinary belt. Begin in the middle of the belt, lace to the edge, then
back to the middle. The ends are fastened in the middle. Beginning on
the pulley, or hair side, put one end of the lace through hole 1 from hair
side to the flesh side. Put the other end of the lace through hole 2 from
hair side and draw tight. Pass long end of lace diagonally across the
joining and through hole 3. From hole 3 pass lace straight up on hair
side and through hole 4; then, diagonally down on flesh side and through
hole 5; then, straight up on hair side to hole 6, down on flesh side to hole 7;
up on hair side to hole 8, down diagonally on flesh side to hole 9; straight
up on hair side to hole 10, and diagonally down on flesh side to hole 11.
Continue in the same way, placing the lace through
the various holes in order.
49. Belt-creep and Slip.-When a belt is running
under a load, it is impossible for 100 per cent of the
power available at the driving pulley to be delivered
to the driven pulley. There is a slight difference in
the r.p.m. of eacp of these pulleys which is due to
the slipping of the belt. When transmitting power,
there is a tight and a slack side to the belt. The
tight side stretches while the slack, in turn, contracts.
The section passing on to the driving pulley is slightly FIG. 21.-Method of
lacing a belt.
longer than whell passing off. The reverse is true
at the driven pulley. The change in length takes place while the belt
is on the pulleys and it is called creep which should not be confused
with slip.
50. Some Useful Rules on Belts.-To find the horsepower a leather
belt will transmit: If V equals velocity of belt in feet per minute and W
equals width of belt in inches; £91' a single belt, horsepower equals
VW /1,000 and, for a double belt, horsepower equals VW /550.
To find the length of a belt for two p~lleys: Add the diameters of the
two pulleys together, divide this sum by 2, multiply this quotient by 3_:!,~
and to this product add twice the distance between shafts.
'To calculate the speed or size of pulley: the r.p.m. of the driving pulley
times jts diameter equals the r.p.m. of the driven pulley times its diameter.
If three of the quantities are known, the fourth can be easily determined.
S X D = 8 1 X Dl where 8 = r.p.in. and D = diameter.
The speed of the belt can be determined by multiplying the circum-
ference of the pulley by the number of revolutions at any given time.
This disregards slippage and creep. The speed of the belt should not
exceed 5,000 feet per minute. A good speed is around 3,500 to 4,000 feet
per minute.
51. Some General Precautions as to the Use of Belts. ·
1. Belts which are too tight cause injurious strains on the belts and machinery
which result in hot boxes and broken pulleys. '
2. Belts which are too loose have a flappy unsteady motion.
3. Keep all belts free from dirt and moisture.

4. Mineral oils should not be used on lenther and rubber belts.
5. Boiled linseed oil or resin mixed with tnllow and oil makes a good belt, dressil~.
6. Belts should be run horizontally or as nearly so as possible.
7. The lower side of a belt should be the driving side as it gives a greater arc of
contact (Fig. 22).
FIG. 22.-Method of placing idler on a belt; the tight side of the belt should be on the
bottom.
8. Idler pulleys should be pfaced on the slack side of the belt and nearer t9 the
driven pulley (Fig. 22).
9. Have the arc of contact 180 degrees and over if possible (Fig. 22).
10. A pulle,Y that is too narrow should never be used.
52. Care of Belts.-The United States Department of Agriculture,

Farmers' Bulletin 1183, gives the following on the care of belts:
Satisfactory service cannot be expected from a belt that is too light or too
heavy or otherwise not adapted to the
work. Neither can a belt be made to give
satisfactory results if the slips do not run
true; is not properly laced; is run too loose
or. too tight; is subjected to alternating
light and heavy loads; is alternately wet
and dry; is run on pulleys of the belt; or
neglected and allowed to deteriorate for
lack of grease and belt dressing. Unless
frequently wiped off dust and dirt work
into the belt and damage it. Never let the
FIG. 23.-Rockwood pulley. belt remain dusty or dirty over night nor
leave an excessive amount of grease or oil on it.
The best leather-belt dressings are mixtures of cod and neat's-foot
oils with tallow and wool grease free from mineral acid.
53. Pulleys.-Pulleys for agricultural purposes are manufactured
from wood, cast iron, and pressed paper. Cast iron is the most popular
type at the present time due to the greater strength and .freedom from
joints. Where the pulleys are of large diameter, not exposed to steam or
water, and where slow speed and light power are required, wood is still
extensively used. Size for size the wooden pulley is perhaps a little
TT1:ANSMISSION OF POWER AND ELEMENTS OF MACHINES 25
cheaper, but the transmission of power by the cast-iron pulley will cost
less. A special type of pulley known as the Rockwood pulley (Fig. 23)
is popular for use on machines that run at a high speed.
Figure 24 shows an adjustable pulley wl:tere the speed of the driven
machine can be either increased or decreased by varying the distance
FIG. 24.-Variable-speed Imlley.
between the sides of the V-pulley. This changes the arc of contact
~~\,'«~~""" tl\~ ~\\.ll~"!) \l.wi tl\~ b~lt) tl\u.s. '.[a"t"!)\.Rq; thA w}p.pA.
5~. Method of Constructing Pulleys.-There are the following types
of pulleys: solid, split, and split-hub.
The solid pulley is one that is cast in a solid piece, having setscrews
and keys to fasten it to the shaft. It is better balanced in weight than
the othlilr types, but has the disadvantage of having to be slipped on over
,
,
t.eveli;g
c5crew~,
.' ....... _
FIG. 25.-Line shaft showing hangers, tight and loose pulleys.
the end of the shaft to the position required. If the shaft is already up
and another pulley is needed, the removal of all pulleys and collars may
be necessary to get it in place. Solid cast-iron pulleys cannot be used
to any advantage with a different size of shafting than that for which
they were bored.
• The split pulley is cut into halves willcll are held together by bolts.
This type of pulley may be had in either wood, cast iron, or steel. The
halves are built separately, fitted together, and then finished as a solid
pulley. This type of pulley depends upon the binding effect of the
26 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUfJ>MEN'l'
bolts to prevent turning on the shafts. Often a key or a setscrew is

added to aid the bolts. Such a pulley can be put on at any place on the
shaft without clisturbing the e'quipment
previously installed.
The split-hub pulley is a solid pulley
having its hub split but not the pulley
face. It has about the same disadvant-
ages as the solid type. The split hub
allows slight adjusting for clifferent
size shafts. There are bolts through
the hub which clamp the pulley on to
FIG. 26.-Malleable-iron hook chain the shaft. This type is qat much
showing how to separate links.
used, except at the ends of shafts, ,
on gas engines and for power pulleys such as are used on threshing
machines.
Keep Ihesebedrings
OIle d excepf when
opercding in dC/Sf
I
FIG. 27.-Pressed-steel hook chain.
The center of the pulley face is generally slightly larger in diameter

than at the edges and is called crowned (Fig. 25). Sionce there is a slightly
larger diameter at the center than at the edges, a
greater centrifugal force and a greater speed is given,
causing the belt to hang to the point of larger
diameter-the center of the pulley.
Many pulleys, where the belts need guiding, are
built with a flange on one side. The flanged edges
should be rounded to prevent cutting the belt in case
it run up over the flange.
55. Line Shafting.-The shaftings on agricultural
machinery are usually made from cold-rolled steel
which comes from the mill in the finished form. The
factories cut it into the required lengths, milling
keyways wherever needed.
A Line Shaft, as shown in Fig. 25, consists of a long FIG. 28.-Detach-
continuous shaft supported by hangers. Arranged upon able pintle chain.
this line of shafting are pulleys for transmitting power to separate
machines. The hangers for shafting should not be placed over 8 feet
apart. The size of the cold-rolled shafting to be used can be determined

by a formula. It usually is a better plan, however, for average farm
conditions, to give the dealer the amount of horsepower to be trans-
mitted and he will furnish the proper
size of shafting needed.
The journal of a shaft is that part
which is in contact with the bearing.
56. Power Transmission by
Sprocket and Chain.- Where power
is to be transmitted at low speed,
chain or link bel ting is very useful.
There is no slippage when a chain
belt is used and much more power
. can be transmitted for short clis-
FIG. 29.-Two types of roller chain.
tances than with an ordinary type of
belt. When the links and the teeth on the sprocket wheel begin to
wear, however, there is a tendency for the chain to ride the sprocket
teeth and sometimes to jump off entirely. Figures 26 to 29 show the
kinds of chains in common use for transmitting power. They are made
from either malleable iron or steel. Where the links are held together by
c D
FIG. 30. -Roller chain parts: A, in side FIG. 31.- Roll er chain repair block.
roller link ; B, connecting outside link; C,
spring clip connecting outside link; D , offset
or half link.
pins or rivets it is called a pintle chain (Fig. 28). Such chains are usually
made of malleable iron. If there is a roller fitting over the pin to form a
sort of bushing and to serve as a wearing surface, it is called a roller chain
(Fig. 29). This is really the better type of chain to use since it partly
substitutes rolling for sliding friction and also distributes the wear over
a larger surface, running a longer time without giving trouble. It is also
used for transmitting power at high speeds. The hook chain may be
made of either malleable iron or crimp steel (Figs. 26 and 27) . The links
28 FARM' MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
have a hook on one end which slips over the end of the next link and so on
until the chain is completed. When such a
hook chain is used, no matter whether it is
steel or malleable iron, the hook should run
with the open part away ft'om the sprocket wheel
and leading in the direction of travel, as
shown in Figs. 26 and 34). Chain belting ,
should be run fairly loose. Undue tightness
simply wastes the power and cuts down the
life of the chain. Some form of chain
tightener should be used with all chain belts.
These tighteners may be either a slide,
smooth wheel, or a sprocket wheel. They
may be either fixed or held against the chain
FIG. 32.-Flexible coupling by a spring.
using roller chain to connect the 57. Transmission of Power by Gears. -
coupling halves.
Where the machine is rather compact and
the shafts are close together, gears may be employed to transmit the
TYPE A 1 YPE B TYPE C TYPE 0

Fro. 33.- Types of sprockets.
power, as shown in Fig. 35. The type of gear may be either spur,
bevel, worm, bell, or helical.
Fro. 34.-lllustrating the proper method of running a hook chain on the sprockets.
Often there is a combination of either spur or bevel or other type.

If the power is transmitted parallel to the shaft, helical, bell, or spur
TR,ANSMISSlON OF POWER AND ELEMENTS OF MACHINES 29
gears are employed; but if the shafts are at right angles, the bevel or
worm gear must be employed. The use of gears
makes a more substantial construction and eliminates
a great amount of lost motion; however, the cost is
greater, especial1y in the case of repairs. It i
much cheaper to replace 'one or two links in a chain
than to replace a complete gear. When one tooth is
broken and all the others remain, the gear cannot be
used.
68. Transmission of Power by Triangles.-It is
often desirable to transmit power some distance from
the point where it is generated as in the case of
operating a pump by a windmill which is not over FIG. 35.-Transmis-
the well. The method used to handle this situation sion of power by gears.
is to have a cross-arm or rocker arm at both the source of power and at
the point to which it is distributed. At each end of the cross-arm a wire
FIG. 36.-Transmission of power by triangles.
is attached extending to the opposite end of the other cross-arm, causing
"r
the two wires to cross about halfway between, as shown in Fig. 36. The
Ap roX.40 lifting stroke of the pump comes at the
1
P
same time the pull comes at the wind-
/.)plinedjoinf
-20#i?CI~ " mill and thus prevents buckling of the
I \ parts. If power is transmitted from a
gas engine, it is not necessary that the
wires be crossed. By the use of
triangles, a series of pumps may be
FIG. 37.-Double universal joint operated by one engine.
used on the power-take-off to operate 59. Universal Joints.-Where ma-
tractor grain binder.
chines are operated from the power-
take-off of tractors, universal joints are installed on the power shaft to
permit the machine to be adjusted and to turn corners. A telescoping
section (Fig. 37) is usually placed between two universal joints, as the '
distance between the tractor and the machine varies when turning and
moving over uneven ground.
60. Electrical Transmission of Power.-In many parts of the country
electrical companies have made electrical power available to rural dis-
tricts. In such cases the electricity is generated at some central source
and transmitted over wires to the various farm steads where it is used for
FIG. 38.-SoEd bearing. FlG. 39.-Plain Or split bearing.
lighting purposes and nIDning electrical motors to accomplish many types

of work. Where the farmer 'Owns his own individual light plant, it wlll
be found that electricity Can be u sed to an advantage to furnish not only
light but power as well for small jobs around the farm home.
61. Bearings.-In all farm machinery, bearings of various types are
used. Tbe propel' bearing to use is determined by: the amollnt of wear,
the speed at which the shaft is turning, the load it must carry, and the
FIG. 40.-Types of ball bearings: A, double-row; B , single-l'ow; C, single-row, with ring

seal; D , end thrust bearing.
amount of end thrust. One type of bearing may give better service
under certain conditions than another. Bearings are divided into the
fol1owing types: solid, plain or split, ball, roller, and self-aligning.
Solz'd B earz'ngs.-Tbe simplest type of bearing is known as the solz'd
bearing and is shown in Fig. 38. . It consists of a piece of wood or cast
iron with a hole bored through it large enough for a shaft to 'be placed in
and revolve. Some of the better types are provided with bushings which
can be removed and new ones put in. They are non-adjustable. The
pitmans of grain binders have solid bearings.
TRANSMISSION OF' POWER AND ELEMENTS OF MACHINES 31
Plain or Split Bearings.-When the bearing is cut into two parts, a..<;
in Fig. 39, either horizontally or at an incline, and the upper part bolted
to the lower part, it is called a cap or split bearing. The,upper part can
be removed and the shaft lifted out of the bearing.
FIG. 41.-Parts of plain roller bearing.
Ball Bearings .- Ball bearings are bearings having one, or more, rows
of small balls placed in a cage or holder. The balls are separated slightly
and held in position by a retainer. Due to the small amount of surface
that is in contact between the balls and the shaft, the friction is reduced
to a very low point. Figure 40 shows ball bearings to take radial loads
FIG. 42.-Showing the various par ts of two applications of Hyatt roller bearings.
and end thrust. Formerly, ball bearings were only used in farm machin-
ery to take ul? the end thrust, but now they are also being used for main
bearings on tlie cylinders of threshing machines, the mainshafts of feed
mills and many other points.
Roller Bearings.-This type of bearing differs from ball bearings in
that small cylindrical rollers are substituted in place of the balls. This
FIG. 43.-Application of Timkin taper roller bearing.
gives a much longer bearing surface which is necessary for a heavy

' load. There are also cages to hold the rollers apart as in the ball bear-
ings. Figures 41 and 42 illustrate several types of roller bearings.
Figure 43 shows the various parts of a taper roller bearing. This type is
used largely on the heavy farm machines.
Self-aligning Bearings.-The construction of the self-aligning bearing
(Fig. 44) calls for two separate units. The bearing proper, the part
with which the shaft is in contact, and the shell or frame, in which it is
32 FARM MA CHINERY A ND EQ UIPMENT
held, make up the two units and are commonly called the ball and socket.
The socket or shell C is often divided into two parts, the lower and the
upper, and is hollowed out on the inside to conform to the ball shape cast
around the outside of the bearing proper at its middle. When in position
the bearing unit is held securely in place, but because of t he ball and socket
FIG. «.-Self-aligning bea ring : A , bearing assembled; E , inn er unit; C, ou ter shell or socket .
construction, the bearing has a limited movement within the shell which
permits it to align itself'with the shaft if it should become t wisted in the
frame. Such an arrangement .p ractically eliminates. any tendency of the
bearing to heat due to misalignment. If improperly adjusted, however,
the swiveling action may be retarded and heating take place.
FIG. 45.- Wood bushings for FIG. 46.-

b earings. Oilless bush-
in g.
62. Heating of Bearings.- Much loss of time often results from

bearings becoming hot and in some cases to such a degree t ha t the soft
metallic lining melts, resulting in a burnt-out bearing. Some common
causes of bearings heating are: lack of oil, cap too tight, belt too tight,
and the collar on shaft too close against the bearing.
63. Bushings.- A bushing is the lining of a bearing and may consist
of either bronze, babbitt, or wood.
Wood, being a cheap material, is often used in lining bearings where

they are subj ected to a considerable amount of sand and dust, causing
rapid wear. Bearings on disk harrows (Fig. 45), in the majority of cases,
are lined with wooden bushings. This allows frequent replacing of the
bushings with small expense. '.TV ooden bushings are usually made of
maple which has been hardened by boiling in oil.
Bronze is an alloy containing about 80 per cent copper and 20 per cent
tin. This metal gives a good, hard, wearing surface and is used exten-
sively in bearings on farm machinery where the speed is rather high and
the load heavy and heating likely to occur, such as the pitman box of the
mowing machine and bearings for each end of the pitman shaft. This
metal makes a very lasting material, wearing rather slowly if proper care is
taken of the bearing by frequent oiling and keeping everything tight.
FIG. 47. -InternaI spur gear. FIG. 48.-ExternaI spur gear.
Babbitt is an alloy of tin, copper, and antimony. This metal is also

used to some extent in lining bearings on farm machinery. Babbitt can
be easily melted and poured into a bearing. It is a rather soft metal
but at the same time resists a great amount of wear. It must be well
lubricated at all times or it will heat and melt.
64. Babbitting a Bearing.-First clean out the bearing; remove all
old metal, grease, and dirt. Set the bearing on some solid place and level
it. If the bearing is a plain one, wrap a piece of writing paper around
the shaft; place the shaft in the center of the bearing and.align it. If the
- paper is not placed around the shaft there will be difficulty in removing it
from the bearing after the molten metal has been poured around it. If the
bearing has a cap, place shims in between the cap and the base. At the
end of the bearing, some clay, putty, or soap should be placed tightly
around the bearing and the shaft to hold in the babbitt. Care should
be taken to see that no water gets into the bearing proper. If there
should happen to be some water in the bearing when the babbitt is poured
in, steam will form and the babbitt will be blown out. This hot babbitt
will give a bad burn should it get on a person.
65. Gears.-It was pointed out on page 28 that gears were used fror
the transmission of power and consisted of the following types: spur,
either internal or external; bevel; helical; and worm.
Spur gears are gears that have their shafts parallel. The teeth that
go to make up the gear have their surfaces parallel to the shaft. An
FIG. 49.-Rack-and-pinion spur gear.
internal spur gear (Fig. 47) is one where the teeth are on the inside of the
rim. If it has teeth on the outside of the rim it is known as an external
spur gear (Fig. 48). With every internal spur gear it is necessary to have
an external spur gear to operate it; but if there are two external gears,
they may be used together without the use of an internal spur gear.
Figure 49 shows a rack and pinion.
A pim:on is the smaller gear of any two gears that are meshing together
and it may be a spur, bevel, or helical gear.
B eveled gears (Fig. 50) have their shafts at right angles or nearly so.
Where the power has to turn a corner, beveled
gears are used. The teeth are at an incline
varying according to the difference in diameter
of the gears meshing together. Beveled gears
tend to wear so that their teeth do not fit one
another closely and for this reason, there
FIG. 50.-Bevel gear and should always be some method of adjustment.
pinion. Miter gears have an equal number of teeth
cut at the same angle (Fig. 51).
Worm geal'S (Fig. 52) consist of screw-like threads which run spirally
around a shaft. This is called the worm and meshes with a helical spur
gear called the sector. As the worm turns, the teeth of the sector which fit
in the screw, threads, or grooves are turned around slowly. This type of
gear is used to a liIl?-ited extent in farm machinery.
Helical gears (Fig. 53) may take the form of either spur gears or
beveled gears, but they do not have straight teeth. The teeth are more
or less curved so that they will remain in mesh or in contact longer than .
the straight teeth. In the spur gear they are called helical spur geaT;
while in beveled type they are called helical beveled gear. When helical
gears are used much noise is eliminated, due to the fact that the teeth
remain in contact longer, giving an even constant pressure at all times.
Fw. 5l.-Miter gears. FIG. 52 .-\Yorm and gear.
66. Clutches.-In most of the larger machines, for the farm, special
arrangements must be made to disengage the power from the various
working parts of the machinery, such as in mowers when moving from one
field to another. It is not !;tdvisable, nor is it practical, to
keep the cutting mechanism in constant motion; therefore,
a clutch is arranged so that the drive wheel is allowed
to turn without driving the cutting mechanism. There
FIG. 53.- FIG. 54.-Cross-section of friction clutch.

• Helical gears.
are two different types of clutches in use on farm machinery; namely,

friction and positive.
Friction clutches (Fig. 54) are used on line shafts but are not exten-
sively used on field machines because of the rapid wear. They consist of
two parts pressed together to such an extent that one will not slip upon the
other. Both turn as a unit.
The positive type of clutch (Figs. 55 and 56) is the one used practically
altogether on farm machinery. It consists of two parts which have teeth
FIG. 55.-Positive type of clutch: A. clutch parts disengaged; B. clutch parts engaged to
transmit power.
so that when they are brought together they engage instantly and posi-
tively allow no slipping. This type of clutch has the disadvantage of
FIG. 56.-Types of positive clutches : A. square-jaw clutch coupling; B.left-hand spiral-jaw

clutch; C. right-hand spiral-j aw clutch.
causing the various mechanisms of the machine to start at a high rate of
speed, instantly, when the clutch is engaged, causing quite a bit of strain
FIG. 57.-Two types of slip or snap clutches used on grain binders.

on various parts and may often cause breakage. The load cannot be
eased on as it can be with the friction clutch which allows the machinery
to start slowly and finally come up to the required speed.
,
Figure 57 shows a type of safety clutch that is being used on power-
take-off machines. .It is also used on bundle carriers for binders.
67. Cam.-A cam (Fig. 58) is a device that produces intermittent
motion. When an object is in motion part of the time and at rest between
motions, the action is said to be intermittent. A cam may best be
described as a wheel with a hump or nose
on one side (Fig. 58). The part of the cam
that projects is called the nose. Anything
resting against the cam will be moved only
when the nose comes around to it; otherwise, _. ___________________ _
it remains stationary. The arrangement FIG. 58.-Cam used to operate
. A F'Ig. 59'IS rna d e use 0 f III
Sh own III . power- furrow opener of planter.
lifting devices for plows, for agitators, and for ratchet drives, such as
the operation of the apron of the manure spreader. It is called an
eccentric drive when used to operate in both directions.
68. Ratchet and Pawl.-A ratchet consists of gear-like teeth (B Fig.
59) placed in the form of either an internal or external spur gear. These
teeth generally have an equal slope from the vertex of the teeth on each
FIG. 59.-An application of an eccentric ratchet and pawl: A, eccentric ; B, ratchet; C, pawl;
D, rocker arm .
side, or they may take the form of a hook. The small pieces of cast iron
or steel (C Fig. 59) that engage the teeth of the ratchet are known as
pawls. The ratchets are always placed in such a manner that when the
pawls, which are attached to the shaft by means of a pawl plate, mesh
with the ratchet teeth, a force is exerted on the shaft causing the two to
turn as a unit. If the ratchet is turning in the opposite direction, the
shaft does not turn because the pawls slip over the teeth. The ratchet
may be so designed to give power to the pawl or vice versa. Such arrange-
ments are used where motion in one direction and none in the other is
wanted. For example, wheels for mowers, manure spreaders, and grain
drill .
69. Keys.- Keys are of two kinds: First, those that fit into a slot in
both the shaft and pulley, holding the two firmly together and causing
FIG. 60.-Patented drive to give an oscillating motion.
them to turn as a unit. Second, the cotter or split keys which are put
through a hole in the end of a bolt or pin to hold the nut and washer on.
70. Bolts.-A great variety of
bolts are used in the construction of
farm machinery and may be classified
as follows: machine, carriage, stove,
and plow bolts.
M ach'l,'ne bolts are used for holding
two pieces of metal together and
have a square or hexagon head with
FIG. 61.-Types of bolts: A, macrune the stem of the bolt fitting into the
bolt witb nut; B, carriage bolt witb nut ; head without any change of diameter
C, plow bolt with nut.
as A Fig. 61.
Ca'rriage bolts (B Fig. 61), unlike the machine bolts, have a rounded or
oval surface head having a square shoulder underneath extending out
some half an inch, varying according t? the size of the bolt.
- ---'~" ~'\'\" " - .. ,

-=== -
a b c
FIG. 62.- Tire and stove bolts:
a, tire bolt; b. flat-headed stoye bolt; c, round-beaded stove bolt.
Plow bolts may have many different kinds of heads, but practically all
of them have from 1 to 4 shoulder-like points which fit into a groove
prepared for them in whatever material they are placed. The underside
of the heads of plow bolts are always countersunk (C Fig. 61), so that the
head may go deep enough into the material that it will fit flush with the
surface. Such bolts are used for hold-
ing plow shares.
Stove bolts, as shown in Fig. 62,
are rather short bolts having threads A BI
running down close to the head which
may be either flat or round heads.
Most of the stove bolts also have a
slot cut across the heads so that screw c o E
drivers may be used to prevent them FIG. 63.-Nuts: A, square nut; B ,
from turning. This type of bolt is hexagon nut; C, castellated nut; D, wing
or thumb nut; E , square lock nut.
used for bolting thin metal together.
Tire bolts (Fig. 62) are used to hold wagon and carriage tires on the
felloe of the wheel.
I , ,
GAP SCREW
UO SCREW
FIG. 64.-Types of screws.

71. Nuts.-The most common types of nuts used on farm machinery
are shown in Fig. 63. The square nut is used on the cheaper machines, .
but the hexagon nut is used on the
higher class machines. Castellated
nuts are used where vibration is likely
to cause the nut to work loose. Wing
nuts are used where it is necessary to
remove a part frequently. Lock nuts
. are constructed so that they automatic-
FIG. 65.-Hollow head setscrew and ally lock themselves in place.
wren ch.
72. Screws.-Many types of screws
are also used in the construction of farm machinery and may be classified
as follows: set, cap, lag, and wood.
A setscrew (Fig. 64) may have several different shapes for the point.
They are so-called because they extend through the collars allowing
the point to come in contact with the shaft in order that the collar and
shaft will be fastened rigidly together and turn as a unit. They are also
used in the same way to prevent various parts from moving out of place.
(a) (b) (c)

FIG. G6.-Machine screws:
·
a, round head; b, flat head; c, fillister head.
Cap screws (Fig. 64) may have square, hexagon, fiat, and button types
of heads. Such screws resemble closely a machine bolt with the exception
O
•
J
-
A B
FrG. 67.-Quick repair washers: A, side latch; B, over latch.
that they do not have a nut on the threaded end; instead, the end passes
through whatever it is to hold into a threaded hole which serves as a nut.
For example, the cylinder head of an automobile.
r--- ' Lengfhoveraij'-- -4
~
Grot/ndend ::,r::
£:!
- ~ LenglhorJJOdyorcoil->1 ~
c:
Half loop,ciosec/ Hcxlf loop,open 'r:
0..
V)
Extension SprinSl
£'"
.!:
.![!
7 ;3
8 '0
9 t
10 E
II :::>
11 :z
Squared end
Tor5ion Spring Compression Sp~in9
Fro. 68.-Springs.
The lag screw (Fig. 64) has a head like a machine bolt, while the other
end is sharp. The t hreads are coarse and similar to an ordinary wood
screw. It is used to attach machinery to floors or beams. The coarse
threads, when started, will draw themselves into the wood as the screw
is turned with a wrench.
Wood screws, unlike the lag screws, are rather small and have slots
across the head so that a screw driver can be used to force them into the
wood.
73. Washers.-Different kinds of washers are used extensively in
connection with bolts in farm machinery. They may be used on either
the end beneath the head of the bolt or beneath the nut. Washers are
of va.rious kinds as follows: flat malleable-iron, cast-iron, wrought-iron,
and spring-lock washers. There is very little difference between mal-
leable- and cast-iron washers, both being rather thick, oftentimes Yz
inch, and are placed where there is a considerable amount of wear.
Wrought-iron washers are round disks with holes in the center to allow
their being placed under the nut. Lock washers (Fig. 67) are made of
spring steel with one side split from edge to center of the hole. The ends
of split parts are turned in such a manner that they will allow a nut to be
turned down easily, but resist any effort to turn it off.
74. Springs.-Springs (Fig. (8) play an important part in the opera-
tion of farm machinery. Extension springs aiel in lifting and adjusting
heavy implements. Compression and torsion springs facilitate the
operation of certain parts of a machine.
CHAPTER VI
SELECTION OF FARM MACHINERY
Before taking up the general discussion of the various individual
farm implements and their construction features, it is well ·to 'stop and
consider some important items that apply to all implements in general ..
These points or qualities that a machine may have or lack are abstract
in a way yet fundamental in their bearing on the quality of the machine.
They are factors that will enable the student to judge a machine better;
they will call to his attention the points to look for which may ha.ve an
important bearing in selecting one machine over that of another.
75. Trade Mark.-The standard definition of a trade mark is given
as follows : Trade mark is a distinguishing mark, device, or symbol fixed
by a manufacturer, merchant, or trader to his goods in order 'to identify
them as his goods, and to distinguish them from the goods manufactured,
sold, or dealt in by others. Such a mark or symbol is the exclusive right
of the user when recognized by law. Most countries give special statu-
tory protection to sucb trade marks as are registered according to law.
The essence of a trade mark is that it distinguishes th~ owner's goods
from those of another.
The trade mark is of importance in the selection of farm machinery
because of what it stands for. Manufacturers spend many years and
much money in building a reputation and getting the tra~e mark on
their goods to mean something. After they have their reputation and
trade mark thoroughly established and well known among the trading
world, they will continue to try to maintain it. It is not always possible
to judge a machine by its appearance and to determine whether good
materials are used in its construction. It is impossible to tell whether
a piece of material is good or whether it is bad by simply looking at it,
especially after it has been painted. Therefore, if it has a trade mark
backed by a firm that has a good reputation, the manufacturer of such
implement is behind that particular piece of machinery. If an defect
occurs within a reasonable length of time, the firm will make it good. tn
other words, then, we may say that the trade mark of a machine is a
guarantee of what lies beneath the paint. Look well to the builder of
your machine when you are judging and preparing to invest.
76. Trade Name.-The trade name is the name by which an article
is called among' dealers, or we may say it is a name given by a manu-
facturer or merchant to an article to distinguish it as one produced and
42
SELECTION OF FARM MACHINERY 43
sold by him. It is an entirely different name from that of the trade

mark. If the trade mark consists of a name, for example, "Avery" and
a machine be stamped with the name, then on the same machine another
name is found, such as "Champion," " Bob Cat," or "Oriole;" the word
"Avery" will be found on all implements made by that company but
"Champion," "BQb Cat," and" Oriole " will be found only on one par-
ticular class, such as mowers or plows. What is true of the trade mark,
with reference to its becoming well known, is also true of the trade
name. Practically every machine made by standard manufacturing
companies has a trade name to go along with the trade mark. It is the
aim of the manufacturer to get the name so well ·known among the Users
of such implements that it may be on the tongu'e of everyone.
77. Repairs.-Before considering the purchase of any machine, it is
well to look into the source of repairs. Can repairs be secm ed near at
hand or will it be necessary to send several hundred miles away to secure
them? No farm implement has yet reached the stage of perfection where
it will not break, wear out, or meet with accidents; therefore, it will need
repairs. Many times tl).e saving of a crop depends upon the quickness
with which repairs can be secured. If breakdowns occm in the midst of
plowing, planting, or harvesting, these breakdowns may cause so much
delay that the crops will be lost . The larger implement companies main-
tain repair supplies at many points in order that they may render quick
service to every part of the country. The machine should be examined
..to see whether it is accessible for making repairs when needed. Provision
should be made in all implements for taking up t he wear of bearings and
gears. Look well to the source of supplies before buying a machine.
_In making up the order for repairs that are needed, be sure to secure
the following information:
1. The name and address of the manufacturer.
2. Trade name, model number, year made or purchased.
3. Number of the part wanted.
4. If the number of the part cannot be determined, then get the numbers of the
parts with which it works.
78. Design.-Design is the arrangement of the parts to show the

difference of makeup in machines of the same type. Manufacturers may
put out the same line of implements but they will not be exactly alike.
It is this difference of the arrangement of the elements that make up the
design of the machine. In studying the general construction of the
machine, keep in mind the number of castings, gears, and points of wear.
The simpler the machine the better it is. from the standpoint of design.
Avoid machinery that is complicated. The fewer parts there are to wear
or take care of, the better it will be for the average farming man. The
( machine should be designed to give sufficient strength. Points to keep
in mind while judging a machine are: Does it look substantial enough?

Will it do the work required of it? Is it practical? If t~ere is any doubt,
it is best to buy the machine upon the condition that it will do the work
planned. Such conditions should be put in writing.
79. Workmanship.-Machines for the farm should be well built and
finished. Many makes of machinery may be of good design yet finished
so roughly that they indicate poor workmanship. The time is past when
anything will do for the farmer, for today he is needing and using machin-
ery\hat calls for just as much inventive genius to devel'Op and mechan-
ical skill to manufacture as the machines used in most of the trades or '
professions. Farm implements should be judged on their workman hip.
Such things · as the snug fitting of bolts, gears, bearings, and meaJ'lS
of lubrication should be considered. See if the nuts are provided with
lock washers, or some other means to prevent losing. All oil holes
should be provided with covers to prevent grit and dirt getting down into
the bearings. In general, does the machine have a finished look or does
it look rough and unfinished?
80. Ease of Operation.-Many implements look well but when they
are used it is' found that they require an unnecessary amount of power
and labor to make them operate successfully. Of cow-se, it is not always.
feasible to have the machine demonstrated to see if it will operate easily;
nevertheless, such things should be considered in the selection of the
machine. The ease of operation may simply depend upon the correct
adjustment. It is not an uncommon thing for a farmer to purchase an
implement, take it horne and after attempting to use it, condemn the
machine because of its hard operation. He may go so far as to take it
back to the dealer and ask for his money back. If the deal r is a good
one, he will usually take the machine out, have the farmer go along, make
the necessary adjustments and see that the machine is running perfectly
before he turns it over to the farmer. .
81. Adaptability to Work and Conditions.- There are many imple-
ments on the market which are not adaptable to every condition. A
machine may work in one locality and be an absolute failure in another
because it is adapted to one and not the other. This may be due to soil
conditions or to the type of crop grown. To take an example: Tools
built for the Southeastern and Gulf Coast states are not suitable for use
in the Southwestern states, New Mexico or Arizona, because of the
difference in climate which influences the methods of preparing the seed
bed, of planting, and of cultivating. Heretofore, the manufacturer has
been depended upon to send the right implement to the right locality,
but the people in these localities should look out for themselves because
there are some m~nufacturers that are unscrupulous enough to sell any-
thing they can.
SELECTION OF FARM MACHINERY 45
82. New Devices.-If one will take the trouble to look into the farm-
implement trade journals, he will be surprised at the many J;lew devices
that are being patented from time to time. The majority of these new
inventions have not been tried out, but are simply the idea of some man,
who thinks he has a nJ.oney-making proposition. About ninety-nine out
of every hundred will never be heard of again. It is a very good plan to '
follow the instruction of Benjamin Franklin, who said, "Never be the.
first to try the new, but never be the last to give up the old." In other
words, the idea is to let someone else tryout the machine first and see how
it works and how it stands up or at least have it thoroughly demonstrated.
If the machine proves to be a good one, adaptable to local conditions,
economical, and a labor-saving device, then do not hesitate to invest.
83. Where to Buy and Why.-Many people do not well consider
where they should purchase a machine. There are five possible places:
1. The factory. • :',
2. The branch house of the factory.
3. The local dealer representing t.he branch house. ..'
4. The jobber. ,::~ -I~;j_~ "
5. The mail-order house. 11>..-...
The question is, from which. of these five places would it be best to.
purchase a machine? If purchased from the factory, will the price be
any better than if purchased from the home-town dealer? Most fac-
tories are located close to the source of fuel supply and construction
material, such as iron. The result has been that most of the factories
are located around the Great Lakes. If a man living in Texas wantt'1
to see the machine before purchasing it, h6 would have to pay niilroao.."
fare to and from the factol'y, which would add materially to the cost ~
of the machine. There are one or two small implement concerns,
however, within the borders of that state. After the man has reached
the factory could he get better prices than if he went to his local dealer?
In practically every case he will not. In fact, most factories would~
refuse to sell him and refer him to his local dealer.
All factories that are of any size will have branch houses. The
others that .are not large enough to maintain branch houses will place
their machinery in the hands of jobbers. Branch houses are usually
located at a distributing point which will best serve their district. This
place may still be quite a distance from the buyer. The same thing is
true in going to the branch house as when the man went to the factory.
He would not get any better price than he would get from the local
dealer. In addition, the freight charges would be greater because of
small shipment.
The smaller manufacturers cannot establish and maintain branches
and, consequently, must place their goods in the hands of a jobber
" -
,'.
'_ .-
or middleman who sells them to dealers, who, in turn, sells to the

farmer.
The best place to purchase farm equipment is frOln the local dealer
who handles a line of farm implements of a reliable manufacturing
concern. He buys in large quantities usually car-load lots, thus getting
a low freight rate. This dealer will give as good a price as can be secured
at the factory or branch house. If he is a good dealer he 'will have an
established place of business and carry a supply of implements together
with repairs for same. He will also know enough about the line to give
~: beneficial service in the way of setting up and servicing the machine,
seeing that it will operate satisfactorily, and maintaining a local source of
repair supplies which will aid materially in awoiding delays.
How about buying machinery from the mail-order house?" Such
houses do not handle what is called a standard line of machinery. The
catalogue prices may be slightly under those quoted by the home dealer,
but there is the delay of waiting for the goods, as well as buying some-
thing that has not been seen. If the machine should get out of order,
break, and need repairs, there is no supply closer than the mail-order
houS{). The average dealer will not consider supplying repairs for such
I.' implements; therefore, the owner of the machine will have to order' his
, own repairs. Much delay, of course, will be involved.
" . Cbnsidering all factors, the best place for the average farmer to pur-
chase machinery is from the local dealer. He sells a standard line of
implements, as a rule he maintains a supply of repair parts. He is in a
pOi' ',ion to give service, advice, and demonstrations if desired.
Other factors to consider in addition to the foregoing are:
Need of the machine, cost of the machine, cost of operation, cost of i
f
repair, power required to operate the machine, and years of service to
be expected. ;" __ '. ;:.' '.\. . . '~C. ' .., r
r
:,~.I - .. 'i' -
l" l- r ' ,. ,.
I.'
~"
I • ~ ,', 1 '..
PART III
SOIL PREPARATION MACHINERY
CHAPTER VII
THE PLOW BOTTOM AND ITS PARTS

84. Influence of the Plow on Man.-When man took a crooked stick
and began to till the soil he made his first step toward civilization. With
each step in the development of the plow, there has been a corresponding
advancement in civilization. In the beginning one man, even though
he gave all his time and energy to the task, could till only a small acreage.
Later, animal power was applied and the acreage per man was increased.
Now, with the large amount of mechanical power available, the acreage
per man has been very materially increased. Thus, man can now produce
more foodstuff than is necessary for his own sustenance and furnish food
to many who are working at other tasks. Hence, we can say that the
plow is the foundation of civilization. In the production of all kinds of
crops and in the preparation of a seed bed for them, the plow is the first
tool used and it is, thus, the basic tool of the farm. With the-plow the
•
ground is broken and pulverized into small particles, lifted, turned over,
and all trash on the surface completely covered. One not familiar with
the nature of the soil, the influence of water, air, and temperature upon its
physical condition, and the action of the plow upon it, may think that the
plow is a very simple tool. But those who are familiar with the soil
conditions and the plow adjustments necessary to obtain the best results
know that the plow is the most important and complete tool on the farm,
requiring the consideration of more factors for the proper adjustment
than does a gas engine. Usually, it is thought to require very little
adjustment and practically no care at all.
85. Objects of Plowing.-In the preparation of the seed bed it is
necessary to keep in mind some of the benefits to be derived from such
:"11 operation. With the plow we strive to accomplish the following
results:
1. To obtain a deep seed bed of good texture.

2. To create a mellow soil for the seed.
3. To add more humus and fertility to the soil, by covering vegetation and manure.
4. To destroy and prevent weeds.
47
5. To leave the soil in such condition that air will circulate freely.
6. To leave the soil in such condition as to retain moisture from rain .
7. To destroy insects as well as their eggs, larvae, and breeding places.
86. The Plow Bottom.-The real unit or base of the plow is called the
bottom, which is composed of those parts necessary for the rigid struc-
ture to lift, turn, and invert the soil. These parts which form a three-sided
wedge are: the frog, share, landside, moldboard, and brace to give rigidity
to the assembled parts. Looking at the landside of the plow the parts that
cut and lift the furrow slice are in view. Viewed from above, the shape
Hl7ndle .fu?~orf
I
Holes foA<{jusf
'-/leigh! ofHandles
Cuffing Edge'
()fSnare
Po;';'; of Share
FIG. 69.-The various parts of a walking plow.
of the bottom is such as to cause the furrow slice to be moved to one

side. This is accomplished by the upper part of the share and the
moldboard.
87. The Frog.-Figure 69 shows the frog which is the foundation of
any plow bottom. It is an irregularly shaped piece of metal to which the
share, landside, and moldboard are attached. Take the frog away and
all other parts are useless b\')cause they cannot be held in their proper
positions. In most plows the beam is also attached to the frog (Fig. 69).
Frogs are generally made of steel, malleable iron, or cast iron.
Steel is used more extensively than any other material for making
frogs. It is a light, strong, durable; and easily shaped material.
The malleable-iron frog is used on plo~s that do not require the frog
to be made thin and small.
THE PLOW BOTTOM AND ITS PARTS 49
If the frog is not very large, it is often necessary to reinforce it to

prevent bending or breaking. Should the frog of any plow become bent,
. it is almost impossible to bring it back to the original shape.
The cast-iron frog is used only on the cheaper plows of the one-horse
type having a.wooden beam. In such plows the frog and standard are
made in one pIece.
88. The Share.-The share (Fig. 70) provides the cutting edge for the
~~~
tp 0 _W'V
plow. The principal parts of the share are the point, the wing, and the
~
(
A B C D
J'Ie. 70.-Kinds of shares: A, slip share; B , shin share; C, slip-nose share; D, bar share.
cutting edge or throat. The point is the first part of the plow to pene-
trate the soil. The wing is the outside corner of the cutting edge .(Fig. 69) .
The cutting edge extends from the point to the wing. This edge is curved
and forms the throat of the share.
The four kinds of shares are slip, shin, bar, and the slip nose (Fig. 70).
Tbe Slip' share ha~ no extension to form the landside as does the bar share.
e shin share has an extension to form
t.be cutting edge or shin for the
oldboard. When a share is replaced
with a new edge, the cutting edge and
shin are new. The slip-nose share
III
one where the point is detachable. FIG. 71.-Share suction: 1, regular
e materials used in making shares are suck-;l1 6 inch for light soil easy of
crucible steel, soft-center steel, penetration; 2, deep SUCk-Yt6 inch
for ordinary soil t h at is dry and ha.rd ; 3,
. .wed cast iron, and cast iron. double-deep suck-% inch for stiff clay
Figure 71 shows shares having three soils, gravel land, and other soils where
penetration is difficult.
S of suction : regular suck, deep.
, and double-deep suck. The amount of suction is around
d, %6, and % inch, respectively. Walking plows are regularly
'.,ped with regular suck ·shares. Wheel plows, both horse and tractor
, are equipped with the deep suck.
Cast-iron Shares.- The cast-iron shares are made for the cheap
walking plow and are very easily broken. The plow must be handled
.IIIIIhfUlly at all times. A sharp blow or a shock will break the share
must then be replaced with a new one. They cannot be welded by
minary blacksmith. Very little care is taken in the manufacture of
GaIIl-iron shares which results in non-uniformity and poor fitting.
10. Chilled Cast-iron Shares.-Chilled shares do not rust easily and
not wear so rapidly as the cast-iron or steel ones. They are especially
adapted to sandy and gravel soils but work well in a clay or loam soil.
91. The Plain Steel Share.-This share is made of steel that is of
the same structure throughout. The land face or gunnel is welded onto
the share proper by a lap weld.
92. Soft-center Steel Shal"es.-The soft-center steel shares are being
used extensively on steel plows and for soils that do not scour well.
The very hard surface takes a good
polish and consequently will scour
where other metals will not. However,
they are more expensive than any of
the other types. Since soft-center steel
shares have been placed on the market
FIG. 72.-Soft-centered ,steel share the many attempts at imitation can
point (landside toward figures): A,
patch of hard steel for reinforcement. 1 be easily detected by the method de-
and 3, hard steel; 2, soft steel; 4, steel scribed under soft-center steel. Many
• landside, lap weld.
sha.res are reinforced by having an
extra patch welded on the upper side of the point (Fig. 72).
93. Sharpening Soft-center Steel Shares.- When sharpening soft-
center steel shares special care must be taken because of the peculiar way
in which they wear. Strange to say, the under side wears away faster
than the upper.
H eat only to a cherry red or 1470° F. The shares should be placed in
the forge fiat and not vertically (Fig. 73). If placed vertically, heating
cannot be confined to the edge. When heating extends the greater part
FIG. 73.-Steps in the sharpening of a plow share: A, only the part of the share to be
pounded out should be heated; B, hammer on the top side; C, the right way to place a
plowshare for cooling.
of the way back across the share, warping will likely occur. Heat only a
small portion at one time and begin at the point, working back to the
wing. H ammering should be done only on the upper side with the lower
side flat on the anvil (Fig. 73). This is necessary because the thicker
layer of hard steel can be drawn out over the soft steel in the center and
the thin layer of hard steel on the under side. If the hammering is done
from the under side, the soft center will be left exposed and very likely the
top layer will be 100 ened and parts flake off. Care should be taken not
to destroy suction in the share.
94. Sharpening Crucible-steel Shares.-Even though they are solid

throughout, crucible-steel shares are best sharpened in the same manner
as soft-centered steel ·shares. Tb,ey can be hammered on the under side,
however, but in doing so there is more danger of disturbing the set.
96. Sharpening Chilled and Cast-iron Shares.-This material cannot
be heated and hammered to draw out the edge because of the brittleness
~~1~::~~~~~§~§~~)
~ Poinfof
'Shllre
, \'" Lands/de
Brae; for Mold hoard
.FIG. 74.-The under side of a plow bottom.
of the
f
material. Instead of being hammered they must be ground and
this should be done on the upper side. A safe rule to follow in sharpening
any share, whether it be soft-center or crucible steel, chilled or cast
iron, is to work from the upper side.
96. Repointing Shares.-Shares that are badly worn or have been
sharpened a number of times should be repointed by welding a 6-inch piece
of steel bent U-shaped to both the lower and upper sides of the point.
A B
FIG. 75.-Wing bearing. A shows the wing bearing on a walking plow, and B shows
the small amount required for a wheel plow. To measure the wing bearing AD, place the
straightedge across the heel of landside at C and wing of share at D. The wing bearing is
the amount in contact with the straightedge at D.
97. Treating the Cutting Edge of Shares.-Steel shares can be used

much longer without sharpening by applying a hard metal, like Stellite,
to the cutting edge with a welding torch. Care should be taken to get the
bard metal well distributed on the bottom side of the cutting edge.
98. Points of Bearing.-There are three points of bearing on an ordi-
nary walking plow, namely, the point of the share, the wing of the share,
and the heel of the landside. These three points are the only points that
actually come in contact with the furrow sole, as can readily be seen as
the plow rests on the floor. The curvature from the point of the share to
the heel of the landside makes the" vertical suction."
The amount of "bearing at the wing" (Fig. 74) will greatly influence
the operation of large walking plows. Plows mounted on wheels do not
require wing bearing, as they are controlled
by the lead of the furrow wheels. The
amount will vary from almost nothing to l Y2
inches according to the size of the plow
and soil conditions. The wing bearing for a
FIG. 76.-0n a walking plow
12-inch walking plow is about % inch, a
the amount of vertical suction l4-inch plow IX inches, and for a 16-inch
should be measured at the inter- plow lY2 inches. The amount of wing
section of share and landside.
bearing is measured as shown in Fig. 75.
It is the amount of the share that is in contact with the straightedge at D .
'
The effect of wing bearings will be discussed under Troubles.
99. Vertical or Down Suction.-This is the bend downward of thE;
lpoint of the share to make the plow penetrate the soil to the proper depth
when the plow is pulled forward. The amount of suction will vary from
,~to ¥I6 inch depending on the style of the plow and the soil it was made
to work in. This suction can be measured on a walking plow by placing
FIG. 77.-Illustrating how the vertical FIG. 78.-Position of stl:aightedge

or down suction should be measured and to measure the horizontal or land suc-
adjusted on a wheel plow. tion at E.
a straightedge on the bottom of the plow extending from the heel of the
landside to the point of the share, then measuring vertically the greatest
distance from the straightedge to the plow bottom (Fig. 76).
On all moldboard plows mounted on wheels, it will be noticed that
the heel of the landside does not touch the floor when properly set; the
vertical suction in this case will be the amount the heel of the landside
is elevated above the floor (Fig. 77). Ordinarily this is about >~ inch
'with the average length landside.
Slat moldboards (Fig. 81) are those that have sections cut out length-
wise of the moldboard leaving only about half of the surface to come in
contact with the furrow slice. These are sometimes used where soils
will not scour. It is claimed by some to give a more thorough soil
pulverization.
The rod type of moldboard (Fig. 81) consists of round rods attached
to the plow in such a manner as to form a surface upon which the furrow
A B
FIG. 81.-Special types of plow bottoms: A, slat moldboard; B, rod moldboard.
slice will be turned. There will ·be little, if any, pulverizing of the soil
with this type of board. It is found to be practical and useful in somp
soils of the prairie type that are sticky and will not shed as they should
from solid molds.
Generally, there are three materials used in the manufacture of
moldboards; namely, the soft-center steel, crucible steel, chilled cast
JrG. 82.-Plow bottom showing soft-centered moldboard and share and method of re-
inforcing point of share and shin of moldboard.
iron, and, on some of the very cheap plows, cast iron. Soft-center ' steel
moldboards, as shown in Fig. 82, are the best to use under most condi-
tions. This is because the majority of soils will scour better on this
type of material. For the Middle West the steel plow seems to give
aatisfaction in most cases. Because of their wear resistance qualities
due to the hardness of the material of which they are made, chilled
plows are better for the sandy, gritty, and gravel soils. Chilled plows
are adaptable to all parts of the South where there is sandy land and
t!8pecially in the yellow pine districts.
~
The shin (Fig. 82) is the cutting edge of the moldboard, just above
the landside. Detachable shins, as shown in Fig. 83, are not used
extensively, however, they would be very desirable on stony and gravel
soils where wear is excessive.
On some moldboards an extension is provided to turn the soil over
more gradually and completely.
104. Size of the Plow.-The size of a moldboard plow is its width in
inches. This is determined by measuring the distance from the wing to .
FIG. 83.-Detachable shin.
the landside. The rule is held perpendicular to the landside. Walk-

ing-plow sizes are 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 14 inches, but wheel horse-drawn
and tractor plow sizes are 10, 12, 14, and 16 inches. Special brush plows
may be as large as 18 and 20 inches.
105. The Furrow.-The furrow may be defined as the opening left I
in the soil after the ftuTOW slice has been removed by the plow bottom
(Fig. 84). The furrow slice is the soil that was cut, raised, and inverted
by the share and moldboard. The crown or bank is the upper surface
of the furrow slice after being inverted. The sole is the bottom of the
furrow on which the plow bottom slides. ThefurTow wall is the unplowed
land. The face of the furro w wall is the smooth vertical face left by the
landside.
A dead furrow is the trench left in the field after a "land" has been
plowed. This trench is slightly wider than twice the width of the
plow bottom used. It should not be left open but filled by making a
round trip across the field throv.ing furrows into the trench.
A back furro w is the ridge left across the field where a land is started.
On the return trip across the field the furrows are lapped on top of those
made the first time across the field .
CHAPTER VIII
PLOW ACCESSORIES
The plow bottom and its parts are the real working parts of any
plow. All parts other than the bottom can be considered as accessories.
They, however, are necessary to obtain good work. For the walking
plow, the handles, beam, and clevis are the principal accessories. Some
form of coulter, weed hook, and gage wheel may be used when needed.
Other types of plows may have, in addition, harrow attachments, levers,
wheels, and a frame upon which the bottoms are mounted.
i06. Handles-are necessary on the ,walking plow no matter how
well it may be adjusted. A certain amount of guiding is necessary while
• 'aage Wheel
"'Jomter
Sha~e (.Wn ljpl!)
FIG. 85.-A walking plow equipped with jointer and gage wheel.
the plow is in operation, even though it is said that it should operate

without guiding when properly adjusted. Handles are also used to
lift the plow around at the ends of the furrow. Because of its lightness
wood is ordinarily used for plow handles. When steel is used, wooden
grips are often provided. On the standard walking plow, iron straps
are used to fasten the lower ends of the handles to the moldboard and
frog or landside; other straps from the beam to the handles support
them (Fig. 85). These straps usually have several holes at the ends to
allow the handles to be raised or lowered to suit the height of the operator.
107. Beams.-The beam (Fig. 85) is attached to the plow bottom and
extends out to the front to form a suitable means for the team or tractor
to draw the plow forward. It may be either steel or wood.
Wooden beams are used only on the very cheap plows of the walking
type or upon the heavy road type where there is danger of hanging the
plow bottom upon a root or stump and springing or breaking the beam.
On wooden beam plows provision is made to take more or less land by
an adjustment at the rear of the beam on the standard.
57
T he ordinary cheap walking plow that has a wooden beam will also '
have a cast-iron frog.
The steel beam is curved in such a manner that it is fastened behind
the moldboard, being attached to eithe; the frog or the landside. It is
also curved so that there will be sufficient clearance at the throat of the
plow to give ample room for the handling of the furrow slice as well as
trash . The end of the beam to which the clevis is attached curves
downward so that it will be in alignment with the center of resistance
of the plow bottom and the point at which the plow is attached to the
power. Steel beams are made of high-carbon steel and will stand con-
siderable strain without bending. When bent they are very difficult
to reshape to their original curvature and it is better that a new beam
A' B C D E F
FIG. 86.-Types of knife coulters: A, fin; E, knee cutter; C, standing cutter; D, hanging
cutter; E, Quincy cutter; F, reversible cutter.
be obtained. Some steel beams have a special device for landing them
at the rear in the same manner as that of the wooden beam.
108. The Clevis.-The clevis (Fig. 85) is a special arrangement at the
end of the beam to form a connection with it and that of the eveners.
Provision is made for both horizontal and vertical adjustments. This is
necessary in order to. get the proper adjustment to bring the center of
power and the center of load as near together as possible. It also provides
an adjustment for depth and width of furrow.
109. Coulters and Jointers.-Coulters are special attachments placE;d
on plows to cut the furrow slice loose from the furrow wall instead of
allowing the shin of the plow to tear its way through the soil. There
are many types of coulters named according to their shape and manner
of attachment to the plow. Coulters are classified as sliding and rolling.
Sliding coulters can be classed under two general heads : knife and fin.
, Included under the knife coulter are all the hanging coulters, knee
cutters, and reversible coulters, sometimes called double enders. Types
of these are shown in Fig. 86. The hanging coulters are always attached
to the beam and allowed to hang underne'ath, going deep enough into
PLOW ACCESSORIES 59
the soil to cut the furrow slice loose. The double enders and the knee
types may be attached both to the beam and to the share.
The fin coulter (A Fig. 86) is an irregular-shaped piece of steel which
is bolted to the land face or gunnel of the share and extends upward to
cut loose the furrow slice. It is used principally in sod land.
The rolling coulter (Fig. 87) is a round, fiat, steel disk which has been
sharpened on the edge and suspended on a shank and yoke from the
beam. It is so constructed that it can be adjusted
up and down for depth and sideways for width of
cut. This type of coulter is used more than any
of the others. The rolling coulter will leave a
smooth furrow face and will also cut trash much
better than the other types.
The jointer is a small irregular-shaped piece of
metal having a shape similar to an ordinary plow
bottom (Figs. 85 and 88). It is a miniature plow.
Its purpose is to turn over a small ribbon-like
furrow slice, directly in front of the main plow
bottom. This small furrow slice is cut from FIG. 87.-Roll"'g coulter.
the upper side of the furrow slice and is inverted. All trash that
bas been on top of the soil is completely turned under and buried
in the right-hand corner of the furrow. The United States Department of
Agriculture has recently developed a swivel or self-aligning disk jointer
that swings to one side :vhen an obstruction is encountered and auto-
matically swings back after it has been passed over (Fig. 89).
·~~~~=t~_· ~VHff __
shank
,
,
Sherrl? ",'
FIG. 88.-Combination rolling coulter and FIG. 89.-Swivel disk jointer. (U. S.
Jointer showing how the hub of the coulter is D el)artment of Agriculture.)
III over the point of the share.
The jointer is used not only by itself but also in combination with
the rolling coulter (Fig. 88). This gives a combination rolling coulter
cmd jointer. The rolling coulter cuts the maill furrow slice and all trash
vertically from the furrow wall, and the jointer turns its miniature furrow
lllice as when working alone. The advantage of the combina.tion rolling
coulter and jointer is that the rolling coulter cuts all trash and allows
the jointer to turn its furrow slice without any trash hanging around the
abank.
60 FARM MA CHINERY ANI} EQUIPMENT
110. Setting Coulters.-There are three essentials to consider in

setting any type of coulter: first, the depth at which the best work is
done under average conditions. This will depend on the depth of plow-
ing, vegetable matter on surface, and the physical condition of the soil.
To cut trash thoroughly the rolling coulter should make with the
surface of the ground a shear cut, using the ground as one edge of the shear.
That, of course, depending upon size, limits the depth the rolling coulter
FIG. 90.-The sile of rolling coulters influences t heir ability to mount a nd cut trash. In
A and B the coulter is too small to mount the trash if it is set deep en ough to properly cut
the furrow sli ce. C sh ows t h e correct setting for si ze of cou lter .
is set, as shown in Fig. 90. Large rolling coulters are more effective under
trashy conditions as they will mount trash better than small coulters.
Notched- or scalloped-edged rolling coulters cut heavy trash better than
smooth-edged coulters.
Under average conditions the rolling coulter should be set deep enough
to cut trash without clogging and shallow enough to cut trash withou~
riding over pa rt of it. A good rule with large plows is .to have the diam-
FIG. 91.-Right and wrong way to adj u st combination rolling coulter and jointer. (Ind .
Aur. EX1]t . Sta. Cir. 217.)
eter of the coulter equal to the size of the plow bottom with which it is
used. If there are stones, tree roots, or stumps, the coulter should be set
ahead of the share point and deep enough to prevent the point of the share
from hanging under obstructions.
The second point to consider is the horizontal position of the coulter
to the shin of the plow. Td make the furrow face smooth, the coulter
must be set to the left of t.he shin and deep enough to prevent the _shin
from digging into the furrow wall. For average conditions, about '>-5 to
% inch to the left of the shin will be sufficient (Fig. 92) but no set rule
can be given.
PLOW ACCESSORIES 61
The third essential is the longitudinal relation of the position of the
coulter to the point of the share. For the average plowing job, the rolling
coulter should be set so that the center or hub of the coulter will be almost
directly above the point of the plow (Fig.
90). If the grQund is hard, the coulter
should be set high and back of the plow
point; otherwise it will affect the penetration
of the plow.
If hanging knife coulters are used they
should, for most conditions, be set with the
points about 1 inch above the point of the
share and the whole cutter slanted backward.
Where the jointer is used with the rolling
coulter, the former is set so that the heel,
· f h I PIG. 92.-Horizontal adjustment
which correspon d s to t h e wmg 0 t e p ow, for rolling coulter.
is just above the surface of the soil. The
point of the jointer should tit close up to the side of the rolling coulter,
but should not bind.
111. Harrow Attachments.-It is usually best to harrow the soil
immediately after it has been plowed. For fall plowing, however, it is
SefScrew
foAdjusf
Scraper
'\..
~~~d='!::-;' Furrow
" \ Wheel
.\ RollingCoulfe,..
.... WeedHook
Scrapf!r
FIG. 93. -Low-lilt (frameless) sulky plow equipped with roiling coulter and weed hook.
desirable to leave the soil rough to catch and hold snow and thus collect
moisture. Leaving the soil rough will also aid in preventing wind erosion.
Such attachments may be secured for this purpose composed of disk,
spike, knife, or propeller-like sections. These attachments are never

used on the mdinary single-bottom walking plow but are generally used
on the gang and engine plows. The attachments are placed to the right
and rear of the plow and will completely harrow the soil as it is plowed.
112. Gage Wheels.-The average walking plow, when properly
adjusted, ~s not supposed to need a gage wheel but on some of the larger
plows it is of use to secure a more uniform depth and width of furrow.
These wheels are attached at the end of the beam near the clevis (Fig. 85)
and prevent the plow from penetrating deeper than it should go. They
are adjustable. It is claimed by some to decrease the draft of the plow
and to increase tl1e life of the share. On engine gang plows they are
used to prevent the plow from going too deep, especially in the soft
sandy soils. In the multiple plows there may be one wheel for the whole
plow or one or two for each bottom. I
FIG. 94.-The Purdue plow trash shield. (Ind. Aor. Expt. Stalion .)
113. Weed Hooks.- The common type of weed hook consists of a
rod attached to the beam and extending out to the front and side of the
plow bottom (Fig. 93). The object of this is to bend the weeds over in
such a manner that they will be completely buried in the bottom of the
furrow. Good weed hooks may be made from an ordinary smooth wire'
attached to the beam or doubletree, and allowed to drag under the furrow
slice. A small chain can also be used.
114. Trash Shields for Plows.-The trash shield (Fig. 94) is con-
structed of sheet metal shaped to form a hood over the top side of the
furrow slice as it is turned over.l Trash can be buried deep enough so
that it will not interfere with tillage operations. The trash is placed in the
bottom of the furrow in the form of a roll, which covers from one-third to
one-half of the width of the furrow. This leaves at least one-half of the
width of the furrow practically free of trash so that capillary action of soil
moisture is not materially affected.
1 Ind. Agr. Expt. Sta. Cir. 217, 1936.
CHAPTER IX
MOLDBOARD-PLOW TYPES
In the discussion of the plow types it is well to consider the different
kinds of plows according to the manner in which they are constructed
and operated, either walking or riding, drawn by a team or by mechap.ical
power.
Plow types are divided into two classes: moldboard and disk.
WALKING PLOWS
115. The Ordinary Walking Plow.-The walking plow (Fig. 95) was
the first type of plow developed to the extent that it was considered a
FIG. 95.- Co=on steel walking plow.
success. Many men worked upon the development of the walking

plow but the steel plow was not developed until near the middle of the
eighteenth century. The first successful walking steel plow was invented
by John Lane, Sr., in 1833.
Walking plows are referred to according to the material in the bottom
as steel, chilled and, in a few cases, cast iron. The various parts com-
posing the walking plow, such as the share, moldboard, landside, frog,
beam, ha~ldles, and clevis, already have been discussed. There may
be right-handed or left-handed plows according to the direction in which
they throw the furrow slice.
SPECIAL WALKING PLOWS

l16. The New-ground Plow.-This plow (Fig. 96) is especially
designed for ground that has been cleared of brush, leaving the soil
well filled with roots. It is built with the idea of simply breaking the
surface of the soil and, at the same time, cutting all roots. Its bottom
is constructed with the share and moldboard in one piece. Wheels are
63
sometimes used to take the place of the landside. It also has a hanging
coulter of the knife type to aid in cutting the roots. The beam may be
made of either wood or steel. This size varies from 7 to 10 inches.
117. Reversible Hillside Plows.-Hillside plows (Fig. 97) consist of
walking plows where the moldboard and share are hinged at the bottom
FIG. 96.-New-ground plow.
and can be reversed either to the right or to the left. The operator is
enabled to make a right-handed plow into a left-handed plow by swinging
the bottom underneath to the left. They are used in fields where all
the furrow slices are to be throvm in the same direction, as on hillsides,
from which they get their name. They are good plows for experimental
Fro. 97 .;--Walking hillside plow.
plots and irrigated fields . They are also good for plo'wing out irregular
shaped fields and in corners. No dead furrow is left when this plow is
used.
J 118. Subsoil Plows.-In some parts of the country it is necessary
to break the subsoil to aid in the retaining of moisture and to give a
larger root zone for the plants. Such a plow (Fig. 98) is called a subsoil
plow. Instead of having a share and moldboard as in the ordinary
walking plow, these parts are almost entirely done away with. Extend-
MOLDBOARD-PLOW TYPES ' 65
ing downward from the beam is what is called the standard, which is
made of steeL The front edge of this standard is sharpened, making a
heavy knife. The shoe is attached to the bottom of the standard. This
shoe is constructed somewhat on the order of a small share which has
considerable vertical suction. The walking type of subsoil plow is used
FIG. 98.-Walking subsoil plow.
in the bottom of the furrows behind the ordinary type of walking plow.
This allows the subsoil plow to penetrate to a greater depth, loosening
the subsoil beneath the fmrow slice.
119. Middlebreaker.-This is a special type of walking plow which
gets its name from the work it is requjred to do. In the South, where .
FIG. 99.-Walking middle breakers. Above, sandy type; below, black land type.
the middles in between the rows are burst out, it is called a middlebreaker.
In the semi.-arid sections of the country, where the crops are planted in
the bottom of the furrow, it is called a lister. This same tool may be
used in an irrigated country for opening up ditches. H ere it is called
a ditchel'. However, it is more commonly known as a middlebreaker. It .
is constructed with two moldboards, one for turning the soil to the
right, the other for turning it to the left (Fig. 99). The share is a double-
wing affair to take care of both the right and left boards. This plow,
instead of having a landside, has what is called a rudder; it acts in about
the same way as a landside on an ordinary walking plow. There is a
knife or rudder blade attached t~ the bottom of the rudder which cuts
down into the soil and prevents it from dodging to the side.
Clevis
WrMchPin
" .
C/e~is
FIG. lOO. - Types of plow stocks: (a) Texas stock; (b) Georgia stock; (c) sweep stock; (d)
doubl e shov el.
120. The Georgia Stock.-The Georgia stock «b) Fig. 100) may be
classed as a walking plo,\-,. This stock consists of a beam, handle, and
a shank where the plow shape or shovel is attached. It is a one-horse,
one-man outfit. A poor job of plowing is done with it and it is a very
hard tool to adjust to do good work under the most favorable conditions.
121. Vineyard Plow.-The vineyard plow is a special built plow for.
working in vineyards, where it is necessary to plow close to the vines,
yet, at the same time, prevent the handles from injuring the fruit and
foliage. The handles on this plow are adjustable to the side to allow
such work to be done.
MOLDBOARD-PLOW TYPES 67
RIDING PLOWS
122. Sulky Plows.-Horse-drawn plows upon which the operator

rldes are made with one or more bottoms. When it is made of one
bottom it is called a,sulky plow. When made of more than one bottom
it is called a gang plow. The sulky plow may be classified as low lift
and high lift. The first successful sulky riding plow was patented by
S. F. Davenport in 1864.
The advantages of the sulky plow are: First, friction is reduced
because the plow is mounted on wheels. Second, the operator is allowed
to ride, affording greater ease of operation. Third, with the average
unskilled plowman better work will be accomplished because it is steadier
FIG. lOl.-Low-lift (frameless) sulky plow.
and the adjustment cannot be easily disturbed. Fourth, there is a

tendency to make the plow take the full width of the furrow at all times.
123. The Low-lift (Frameless) Sulky Plow.-The low-lift sulky
plow, as shown in Fig. 101, may also be classed as a frameless and a
tongueless plow, because there is no frame and no tongue. This plow
is the first step after the walking plow. Really, it is a walking plow with
the land wheel and the furrow wheels minus the handles. All three of
the wheels are attached to the beam. With the low-lift sulky there is
a lever on the front furrow wheel and one 011 the land wheel. These
levers have a range of adjustment only sufficient to allow the bottom
to be raised a short distance above the surface of the ground. The
land wheel which runs on the unplowed land is a rather large light wheel
running perpendicular while the front furrow wheel is inclined from the
perpendicular. The rear furrow wheel is also slightly. inclined from the.
perpendicular but not so much as the front furrow wheel. These are
inclined to counteract the side pressure of thE~ furrow slice as it moves
backward over the moldboard. The low-lift sulky is quite popular
throughout the New England states and tile Middle Eastern states. It
is also being used extensively in the South and SQI.lthwest.
Ro///ng Coulfer
.O!nd Joiflfer
FIG. l02.-High-lift (frame) sulky plow.
124. High -lift (Framed) Sulky.-The high-lift or foot-lift sUlky

allows the bottom to be lifted higher than in the low lift. This plow has
three wheels but instead of being attached to the beam, they are secured
-L anet wh~el lever
/ / ,-Foof-liff lever
Eurrtlw wheellever.\
I ~Foot-Iever fOr lowering plows
, I
........ , .......
"
Coulfer--
FIG. l03.-~ide view of foot-lift on high-lift horse-drawn gang plow.
to the frame. The beam is suspended in the frame by means of bails

(Fig. 102). The bails are U-shaped, the' ends of which are fastened to the
frame by means of the bail box. 1'he beam is attached to the bot Lorn of
the U and it is upon this that it is raised and lowered. By this arrange-
ment the bottom can be raised several inches above the ground. Some
plows are constructed with one bail and others with two . They are known
as single- or double-bail plows. This style of plow can be made to float .
This means that it will automatically come out of the ground if the bottom
strikes an obstruction. When set to float, the bottom is not locked in
the ground. 'When locked, should the bottom strike an obstruction, it
will not come out of the ground as in the case where it is flo 1ting. The
wheels of the plow are arranged and inclined in about the same manner
as those 'of the low-lift sulky. The object of the tongue on this plow is
to aid in guiding and in turning. The pole extends forward between the
furrow horse and the one next on the land.
FIG. l04.-Two-way su lky plow.
125. The Gang Plow.-The gang plow (Fig. 103) has hio or .m ore
bottoms. There is no material difference between the horse-drawn gang
plow and the foot-lift or high-lift sulky except that a gang plow has more
bottbms. The gang construction and arrangement of ' the wheels and
methods of control are practically the same. Of course, it takes more
horses to pull the extra bottoms and, when this is the case, greater trouble
will develop from side draft, which will be discussed under Hitches.
SPECIAL RIDING PLOWS
Two-way Sulky.-This plow (Fig. 104) has two bottoms, a left-
ded and a right-handed bottom. Only one of these bottoms is used
at a time. One bottom is used going across the field in one direction
and when, at the end of the furrow, the team is turned around, this bot-
tom is raised and the other bottom is lowered into the soil. Therefore,
by the use of the right- and left-handed bottoms, separately, all the
furrows are thrown in the same direction. It is a good plow to use on

hillsides, terraced fields and on irrigated lands. It would also be goo& to
use in small fields of irregular shape. Note that no dead furrow:3 are left
when a plow of this type is used. This would be advantageous to the
-.
FIG. l05.-Frameless sulky riding plow converted into a middlebreaker or lister.
irrigated sections because the dead furrows left by the other types of
plows will hold more water than is necessary and will likely cause a drown-
ing out of plants. On terr~ced fields the soil washes down between
terraces and partially -fills the channel. Throwing the furrows up hill
with a two-way plow somewhat offsets the down hill movement of the soil,
Sidled holes fo
adjusf verficaJ
suelion --_
, -- Molo! board
'Sloffed holes fo adjus.f depfh
<Sweep Rudder blade
FIG. l06.-Sweep attachment for sulky FIG. l07.-Middlebreaker attachment for
plows. s ulky plows.
helps in keeping the channel clear, and prevents the formation of bench
terraces. When one bottom is raised and the other one lowered, the hitch
automatically shifts to the proper position. The seat can also be tilted
for use on hillsides, which assures comfort for the driver.
127. Riding Middlebreaker or Lister.-The riding middlebreaker
(Fig. 105) is mounted on a truck of two wheels, having a seat for the
operator. There are levers for adjusting the depth. The general con-
struction and use have been discussed under walking middlebreakers.
A special sweep attachment and a middlebreaker attachment for

sulky plows are shown in Figs. 106 and 107. Figure 108 shows a two-
bottom middlebreaker or lister attachment for a tractor.
128. The Steel Gang.-This is a plow constructed entirely of steel to

give such strength that it will withstand the hard usage and the rough
country of the western ranches (Fig. 109) . Generally, no seat is placed on
the plow; however, the operator can ride by placing a board across the
FIG. l09.-Steel-gang plow.
beams. This plow has only two wheels, the furrow wheel and the land
wheel, no rear furrow wheel being used. The landside for the rear bottom
is extra heavy and takes care of the rear adjustment. It has an extra
long landing lever, a leveling lever, and a lifting -lever.
72 FARM M ACHI NERY AND EQUIPMENT
ENGINE GANG PLOWS
129. Types of Engine Gang Plows.- The early type of plowing with
engine gang plows was developed in England where a large steam tractor
was stationed at each end of the furro w with a large drum pulley on which
a cable was wound. One end of the cable was attached to each tractor
FIG. llO.-Four-bottom power-lift tractor plow.
drum. The plow was attached to the cable and alternately drawn back-
ward and forward across the field by the tractors. This type of plow is
still used, but it is a rather expensive way to plow due to the large amount
of costly equipment necessary. The American idea is to hitch the plow
r----' behind the power and move tractor, plow
and all, across the field together.
130. The Power- or Unit-lift Gang
Plow.-The power-lift plow (Fig. 110) is
much smaller in construction and closely
resembles the horse gang plow. In fact, it
is possible to convert tpe horse gang plow
into an engine plow by changing the type"
l_ of hitch. In a power-lift plow the bottoms
FIG. llL-Clutch for power-liSt are lifted out of the ground as a single unit;
on tractor plow. that,is, all bottoms being raised at one time.
This is accomplished by a special power-lift clutch (Fig. 111).
The ~ractor operator raises and lowers the plow bottoms by pulling a
rope which causes the clutch to engage ; the power of the tractor pulling
the plow forward will raise it out of the ground. The plow is lowered into
the soil by the operator pulling the rope, releasing the clutch, allowing the
plow to drop on the ground, and, as the tractor pulls it forward, the down
suction of the bottoms causes them to enter the soil. Tractor operators
can control both the tractor and the plow when this type of plow is used.
The land wheel runs vertically and straight forward. The front furrow
wheel on some plows is set at an angle while 011 others it runs almost
vertical and straight forward. The rear furrow wheel is set very similar
to that on the horse gang. It is sometimes given a lead E&Vay from the
furrow wall while in other cases it is allowed to run straight to the front .
Depth levers are provided for regulating the depth of the plows and also
FIG. 11 2.-Two-bottom plow drawn by a general purpose or row-crop tractor equipped with
ru b ber tires.
for leveling them. The clutches found on this type of plow are exactly
like those found on check-row planters except that they are much larger
and stronger. It is of the ratchet and pawl type. All of the tractor
plows are guided and controlled by the tractor. The hitch and various
adjustments will be discussed under another heading.
FIG. l13.-Chisel p low.
SPECIAL TRACTOR PLOWS

..j 131. Chisel Plow.-Figure 113
shows a special type of tool that is
called a chisel plow. It is claimed that it stirs the soil thoroughly without
turning up the moist subsoil, thus leaving the dry soil on top i that it gives
deep cultivations, breaking up hardpans and plow sqles, which permits
free movement of soil moisture and the absorption of a larger percentage
of rainfall.
132. Power Subsoiler.-A special tool for deep penetration to break

up subsoils and hardpans is shown in Fig. 114.
FIG. 114.-Power-lift subsoil plow.
FIG. 115. -Three-bottom power-li ft li ster.
FIG. 116.-TJ'o-row lister equipped with damming attachments.
133. Power-lift Lister.- In the semi-arid and wheat growing regions

of the Middle West listing is often substituted for flat breaking with
plows. Figure 115 shows a three-row lister or middlebreaker.
134. Basin or Damming Lister.- In areas where the soil has a t end-
ency to blow and soil moisture is low, dams are made in the list ed furrow
with a damming attachment to form b asins in which rainfall is stored
(Fig. 116) . The water collected in the basins soaks into the soil (Fig. 117)
F IG. 117.- Illustr a tin g h ow d a m s in li st er fu rrows form b asins to h old water.
providing moisture for crops, preventing soil and water losses by erosion,
and aiding in checking wind erosion. The dams are formed with blades
shaped to fit into a listed furrow so t hey will cat ch soil on the sides and
bottom of the furro w. When the blade has moved forward 8 or 10 feet,
FI G . 118.-R ever sible two-way t r actor pl ow.
or enough to fill the furrow with soil, it is lifted over the soil, thus forming
a dam. Several methods of lifting the blades or damming attachment
have been developed. The most common, however, is a roller lug on one
side of a gage wheel. As the wheel revolves, the lug comes in contact
with an arched arm attached to the frame and lifts it and the blade,
leaving a mound of soil in the furrow .
135. Draft of Basin Attachments.-Tests made at the Fort H ays

Branch of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station with a two-
bottom lister equipped with a basin attachment showed that the att ach-
ment increased t he draft approximately 10 per cent. The draft of the
two lister bottoms without the basin attachment on was 1,520 pounds,
FIG. 119.- Two-way plow attachment for a one-plow tractor.
requiring 10.2 horsepower. With the basin attachment left off, the two
lister bottoms gave a draft of 1,224 pounds, requiring 8.2 horsepower to
draw the bottoms.
136. Two-way Tractor Plow.-The plows shown in Figs. 118 and 119
are tractor plows having both right- and left-hand bottoms. This type
of plow is used in irrigated sections and where t he land is to be broken
without leaving dead furrows. It also can be used on terraced fields.
CHAPTER X
DISK-PLOW TYPES
The disk plow was brought out in an effort to reduce friction by

making a rolling bottom instead of a bottom that would slide along
the furrow . It cannot be said with authority that after the extra weight
is incorporated into the plow it will have any less draft than that of
the moldboard type. The results of the disk-plow usage, however, show
that it is adapted to conditions where the moldboard will not work.
Some of t hese conditions are as follows: first, the disk plow can be used in
hard ground that is too hard for the moldboard; second, it will scour,
using a scraper, in most soils; third, it does not form a hardpan; fourth ,
the angle of the disk can be changed for hard or loose land.
FIG. l~ O.-S l1lky disk plow.
This type of plow is used in the South and North, and very extensively
in the Southwest and the semi-humid regions of the Middle West. It is of
special value in Texas because of the large areas of soil having a close
texture which will not scour on the average moldboard plow. Texas is
called by the plow manufacturers a disk-plow state. There aJ;e large areas,
however, where the moldboard plow does W0fk satisfactorily.
137. The Sulky Disk.- The sulky disk plow (Fig. 120) as in the case of
the sulky moldboard plow, is a disk plow withe only one bottom. The disk-
plow bottom is a perfectly round, concave, disk of steel, sharpened on the
edge t o aid in the penetration of the soil. There are several holes for
bolting t his disk to the malleable casting upon which it fits. These disks
77
are set at an angle both to the plow sole and to the furrow wall. This
allows the disk to have a sort of-scooping action. The use 'of heat-treated
disk-plow bottoms assures longer life, a smooth cutting edge, and easier
penetration.
The malleable iron bracket to which the disk proper is bolted has an
extension forming an axle projection, which fits into a hub in such a
manner as to give a close-fitting bearing. These parts are usually chilled
to increase their lasting and wearing qualities. Some plows are now being
equipped with ball and roller bearings. The majority of plows, however,
use plain cone bearings. The bearing allows the disk free action as far as
turning is concerned.
When the plow is pulled forward the disk will turn due to the action
of the furrow slice upon it. The top of the disk is revolving to the
operator's left. The furrow slice, then, is cut by the left edge of the disk,
brought under and up to the right, and then thrown out to one side. The
furrow slice is pulverized to some extent when carried over the concave
surface of the disk.
All disk plows should be equipped with a scraper (Fig. 120) which can
be adjusted to work from the center to the edge of the disk. With the
aid of the scraper it is possible to get greater
pulverization of the furrow slice. It is also
possible to invert the furrow slice much
better.
The disk plow can be made to penetrate
more easily by setting the disk more in a
vertical position (Fig. 121). The flatter it
sets the less tendency there will be for it to
penetrate. To further enable the disk plo'w
to take the soil properly, weight is added to
the frame and wheels to force the plow into
the ground. There is one great difference
in moldboard and disk plows: The mold- '
board plow is pulled into the ground by
FIG. 121.-Vertical angle of disk the suction of the plow, while the disk
can be easily changed.
is forced into the ground by adding weight
and by the suction of the disk due to the angle at which it is set. The
frame of this plow is made of very heavy steel with many large castings to
give plenty of weight.
The wheels, instead of being made of light rolled steel as in the mold-
board, are cast and are smaller and heavier. The rim of the wheels
instead of being fiat is usually flanged or V-shaped. This construction
aids in preventing the wheel from slipping sideways. Provision is made
for additional weight by means of weights which can be bolted between or
DISK-PLOW TYPES 79
on the sides of the spokes of the wheel, usually on the rear wheel. This
may be necessary if unusually hard ground is encountered.
F IG. 122.-0verhead v iew of two-bottom horse disk-gang plow.
Another difference of construction, in compn,rison with moldboard

plows, is that instead of the plow beams curving over the top of the
Jp
FIG. 123.-Tri ple-bottom horse disk-gang plow.

plow and attaching to the back of the plow bottom, they come from the
side. This, of course, does not allow enough clearance and often gives
trouble where a large amount of trash is on the land.
o FARM MACHINERY AND F:QUIPMENT
The furrow wheels of the disk plow, like those of the moldboard, are
inclined. This is to aid the plow to overcome. . the side pressure created
by the furrow slice upon the plow which is increased by the rolling of
the bottom itself, causing the rear end of the plow to swing around'
to the left. There are levers for each of the wheels for adjusting and
leveling the plow. There is a special lever for landing the front wheel"
that is, it can be given more or less lead to or away from the furrow wall.
138. The Gang Disk Plow.- The gang disk plow (Fig. 122) differs
from that of the sulky disk plow in that there are two or more bottoms.
Many of the sulky plows are so constructed that they can be changed
into a gang plow by adding another bottom, making either a two-disk
(Fig. 122) or three-disk plow (Fi~ 123) . For this reason, this type o~
plow is sometimes called a multiple gang plow. The construction of the
FIG. 124.-0verhead view of reversible-disk plow with seat removed.
disk, frame, wheels, and arrangement of the levers is practically the

same as for the sull(y plow.
SPECIAL HORSE-DRAWN DISK PLOWS
139. Reversible-disk Plow.-This disk plow consisting of one bottom ..
(Fig. 124) is so constructed that the disk can be reversed and the soil
thrown in the same direction at all times. The change from a right- to a
left-handed plow or vice versa is accomplished by a beam that is pivoted at
the center on one end of which is hitched the team, while at the other end
there is a large semi-circle gear meshing with the gear on the bracket
of the disk. If it is desired to turn the plow in the opposite direction,
a latch is kicked loose releasing the beam and the t eam turns without
turning the plow frame. As the beam revolves the disk is also turned
by the action of the gear. The seat is attached to the beam and moves
with it. The furrow wheels are adjusted automatically, changing the rear
furrow wheel into the front furrow wheel and giving them the proper
lead. This can be further adjusted by a special lever for that purpose .
•
DISK-PLOW TYPES 81
ENGINE GANG DISK PLOWS
140. Regular Tractor Disk Plows.-Tractor disk plows may be

divided into two classes according to the manner of construction of the
fraIll e ; the side-frame type and the overhead-frame type. The side-
frame disk plow (Fig. 125) is the original design and all engine disk plows
were made with this type of frame until a few years ago. The frame
FIG. 125.-Side-frame disk plow.
fits to one side and bel!)w the top of the disk. The disk plow with the
overhead frame (Fig. 126) has the frame elevated several inches higher
o that the disk bottoms can be suspended underneath, giving more
clearance. Manufacturers arrange the wheels differently. Some are
arranged very similar to that of the power-lift engine gang moldboard
plo~. The wheels in the side-frame type of plow are arranged very
awkwardly. The land wheel is placed out to the side and considerably
DEPTH
RAl'i'X
FIG. 126.-0verhead-frame engine gang disk plow.
to the rear of the plow, and furnishes the power for lifting the plow out
of the ground. The front furrow wheel is placed to the front and con-
nected to the hitch to aid in guiding and turning. The rear furrow wheel
is often allowed to castor. The land wheel on the overhead-frame type
may be placed near the front of the plow similar to the engine gang
moldbo::ud plow. The furrow wheels on both types are inclined from
the vertical for the same reasons as in other plows. The rear furrow
wheel is usually provided with heavy weights to force the plow into
hard soil. Levers are provided for adjusting the depth and leveling
of the plow. The same type of power-lift clutch arrangement for raising
and lowering the plow is used as oYi the moldboard type.
SPECIAL TRACTOR DISK PLOWS

141. One-way Disk Plow.-As shown in Fig. 127, the one-way disk
plow is .a combination of the principles
of the regular disk plow and the disk
harrow and is often termed a wheat-
land, cylinder, han'ow, or tiller plow:
It has the frame, wheel arrangement,
and depth adjusting devices of the
..
disk plow, while t41:< arrangement of
-.- ~"
the disks and their attachment to the
fn:.me is like the disk I¥.rrow, How-
ever, the disks are all set to throw
the soil one way and turn together as
a unit similar to a gang Df a disk har-
row. It is made in different sizes to
cut strips 5, 6, 8, and 10 feet wide.
The larger plows are constructed so
that sections can be removed and the
size of the plow reduced, It is Claimed
that 25 to 40. ·acres can be plowed in
a day with the larger plows of this
FIG. 127.-0verhead view of one- type. The size of disk used is generatty
way plow reduced to 7-disk size. Note 20 inches in diameter.
disks and parts for increasing to 10-disk
size. 142. Orchard Disk Plows ....--Figure
128 shows a disk plow constructed
without any long levers to catch overhanging branches. The wheels
are set inside the frame to allow passing close to trees. The hitch IS
FIG. 128.-Special orchard disk plow.
designed to allow the plow to be shifted to either the right or left, which
makes plowing close to trees possible.
,
DISK-PLOW TYPES 83
143. Disk Plows for Special Tractors.-As in the case of the mold-
board plows, manufacturers have designed and built disk plows adapted
to special t ractors.
FIG. 129.-Disk-plow attachment for tractor.
The plow shown in Fig. 129 is designed to be drawn behind the tractor.
These plows hitch directly to t he tractor drawbar, eliminating the
framework and front wheel. A power lift is provided to raiRe and lower
the plow as desired. Two levers are placed conveniently to the operator
for adj usting the depth and leveling the plow.
CRAPTER Xl
PLOW DESIGN
The design of the plow is one of the big problems that has never been
entirely solved, yet more work has been done ~o perfect the plow bottom
t han on any other agricultural implement. Upun its performance
depends the quality of th e seed bed the farmer can prepare, which in turn
will influence the germination of the seed, the growth of the plant, and thp
yield, that will be obtained in the end.
144. Judging Plowing.-Befor.e going into the discussion of the design
of the bottom for doing good plowing, one should consider first, what
constitutes good plowing. Good plo'wing consists of turning and setting
the soil into even, clean, straight furrows of roundish conformation.
The main points to consider are the following:
1. The top of the furro w may be slight ly ridged .
2. The soil must be pulverized t horoughly from t he top to the bottom of the
furrow.
3. Kwh furrow must be perfectly straight from end to end.
4. All back furrows must be sligh tly raised and all trash completely covered.
5. The outline of t he furrows must be in a point without break or depression.
6. All trash must be buried completely in t he lower right-hand corner of the furrow.
7. Furrows must be thoroughly uniform with one another.
8. The depth of a ll the furrows must be the same, continuing in uniform depth.
9. The d ead furrows must be free from all trash on the ground.
These are rules by which a plowing test may be judged. However, if
these rules were followed in all sections of the country where diHerent types
of soil are found, the best seed bed would not always be made. The main
things to consider in plowing are that the land be completely broken,
that the soil is thoroughly pulverized, and inverted, with no air spaces left
between the furrows. These are conditions that may be applied to any
section. The whole bottom is essential for good plowing, the share cut-
ting and slightly lifting the furrow slice, the landside controlling and
steadying the plow, while the moldboard completes the lifting, pulver-
izing, and inverting of the furrow slice. It is upon the moldboard that the
main part of sucoessful plowing depends. The curvature and length of
the moldboard determine the degree of pulverization the furrow slice
will be given.
145. Forces That Act on the Plow.- Lindgren and Zimmerman '
analyze the many forces which act upon the plow bottom as follows:
1 Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans., Vol. XV, p. 150, 1921.
84
•
PLOW DESIGN 85
First, the principal vertical forces: (a) that are due to the weight of the plow;
(b) that a:e due to the 'downward pr~ssure ~xerted during t~e lifting. of the soil;
(c) the liftmg component due to the hitch bemg above the pomt of resistance; and
(d) that force developed when the plow is dull and worn and which has the
upward component the result of the sloping under surface of the share.
Second, the principal horizontal cross-furrow forces: (a) due to the cross-
component caused by the friction of the soil on the moldboard; (b) by transferring
the soil sideways the width of the furrow ; (c) the cross-component due to cutting
and wedging of the sloping share edge in operation; (d) the component of the line
of draft ; and (e) such cross-component as may result from the rear furrow wheel
reactions in multiple outfits, where used.
FIG. 130.-Showing the location of the center of lo ad on a single-bottom 12-inch plow and on
a two-bottom gang plow.
Third, the principal longitudinal forces acting lengthwise of the furrow:

(a) the soil resistance to cutting; (b) the friction between the furrow wall and the
landside; (c) the friction due to the weight and pressure upon the bottom of the
plow according to the setting or condition of the cutting wedge; (d) the compo-
nent of the friction of the earth sliding over the moldboard. For equilibrium we
have the sum of the draft produced by the motive power.
Thus it can be seen that the moldboard which is a modified warped

surface, as analyzed by 'W hite, 1 will have a great deal to do with the proper
functioning of the plow, depending upon its width, curvature, and length.
Moldboards which have a greater curvature, being bluffer, will naturally
give a better pulverizing action upon the furrow slice, due to their
pinching, crushing action.
1 Jour. Agr. Research, Vol. XII, No.4, p . 149, 1918.
86 FARM MA CHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
146. Center of Resistance of a Plow Bottom.-A point where all three

of these forces meet is considered to be the center of resistance or load. It
cannot always be determined just exactly where this point will be on a
plow bottom, but it will usually come within the range of the following
dimensions for a 14-inch bottom. Vertical forces ·will be in equilibrium 2
to 231' inches up from the floor; the horizontal forces 2 to 3 inches to the
right of the shin; the longitudinal forces 12 to 15 inches back from
the point of the share. Briefly, we can say that the center of resistance
of any moldboard plow bottom will be on top about where the share and
moldboard intersect and to the right of the shin (Fig. 130). If two or more
bottoms are used the center of resistance ·will be the average of all the
centers. For a two-bottom plow it would be half way between the
center of resistance for the two bottoms. On a three-plow outfit it would
be at the center of resistance of the middle bottom. Of course, the style
of bottom as to shape, type of share, and moldboard will influence
the point where all the vari.ous forces acting on the bottom ,,,illbe i.n
equilibrium.
147. Influence of Friction on Design.-After taking all the above
principles into co nsideration, they will resolve themselves into one general
principle of plow design that must be considered in every type of plow,
no matter whether it be stubble, general purpose, or sod. That principle
is that friction will be the great est at the point of the share and gradu-
ally decrease backward to the end of the moldboard. This can be seen
readily on any plow bottom after considerable use. The greatest amount
of wear is shown to be at the point and gradually decreases ba9kward to
the tip of the wing of the moldboard. This is why the stubble moldboard,
which has a greater amount of curvature, gives better pulverization
to the furrow slice. It is also seen that this type of moldboard will pierz-
up the soil quicker and turn it over harder than any other type. That
makes this type of plow mo;e adaptable to plowing the loams and the
sandy loam soils. The general purpose moldboard has a less amount of
curvature t han that of the stubble and it is in this class that the black-
land type of plow will fall, because the curvature is not so pronounced as
that of the stubble moldboard.
148. Influence of Speed on Design.~In the. last few years there has ·
been much agitation regarding the designing of plows for high speeds.
It is not so difficult to design a plow for high speeds as it is to optain
pulyerization. The bottom designed for high speeds must have gradual
curves, which approach closely those of the sod type of plow. It can
be seen readily that it is not necessary to have the moldboard as wide
in this case in order to lift and invert the furrow slice. The higher
velocity will carry the soil up over the moldboard, throwing it farther
,
to the side. Much difficulty is likely to result from plows for high speed
PLOW DESIGN 87
which must incorporate a plow bottom of long slopes. They may scour
well while going at a high rate of speed but when the speed drops to
2 or 3 miles per hour, the question is, will they continue to scour at this
peed? Will they do the same type of work as at the higher speed?
149. Type of Soil.-Another important factor influencing plow design
i the type of soil. In fact, if it were not for the soil factors, designing of
plows would be a comparatively simple matter. Brown l says:
The type of soil, from sands, through the loams to the clays, are effected
differently by the same plow bottom, and since the prime object of plowing is to
put the soil in the proper condition of tilth for the successful growing of crops,
it follows that there must be a variety of plow shapes.
Bacon 2 states that . . .
Plow designers have been obliged to make bottoms that will approach the
best work in all conditions under which farmers plow. This accounts for the vast
number of different designs of plow bottoms.
DISK-PLOW DESIGN
150. Uses of the Disk Plow.- In certain territories where plowing

i extremely difficult, disk plows are used. The conditions adaptahle
to disk-plow use are enumerated as follows:
1. Sticky, waxy, gumbo , non-scouring soils, and soils having a hardpan or plow sole.
2. Dry hard ground that cannot be penetrated with a moldboard plow.
3. Rough , stony, and root-y ground, where the disk will ride over the ro cks.
4. Peaty an d leaf-mold soils where the moldboard plow will not turn t he slice.
5. Clay and sandy loams.
6. Deep plowing.
151. Angle of Disks.-To successfully meet the conditions outlined,

the disks' blades must be ' 0 arranged on the frame that they will function
properly.. From experience it has been found that the disks should be
placed at an angle both vertically and horizontally. This angle depends
on the proper distribution of the entire weight of the plow, which is
necessary to hold the disks in the ground. Weight is required because
the disks do not have the suction that the moldboard has. By referring
to Fig. 121, it is seen that the vertical angle can be varied from an abrupt
angle to one that is quite flat. The more vertical the ·disk is set, the
greater the tendency to penetrate.
The horizontal angle of the disk influences the width of the furrow
slice and the tendency to roll. Disk blades set more perpendicular to
the direction of travel cut wider furrows and do not turn so freely as
when more parallel to the furrow.
1 Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans., Vol. XIX, p. 24, 1925.
I Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans. , Vol. XII, p. 26, 1918.
"----
152. The Center of Resistance. -The center of resistance is closer to

the furrow wall than on moldboard plows. Its location is to the left and
below the center of the disk blade. The point varies with the vertical and
horizontal angles, the depth, and the amount of concavity of the blade.
153. Disk Blades.-The size of disk blades ranges from 20 to 28 inches.
The average thickness for disk-plow blades is Us inch. The amount
of concavity varies with both the different diameters and the same
diameter, as shown in the table:
TABLE I.-SIZE, CONCAVhy, AND RADIUS OF THE AVERAGE DISK-PLOW BLADES!
I co~cavitY, I
Size, Radius,
inches mches inches
20 2yg 18%
23 3% 21 .
24 3% 17 X 30%
24 31 716 21
26 3% 24%
26 4 ·23Xs
26 4% 21
28 4X 25%
28 5% 21
I Agr. Eng. Jour. , Vol. VII, No.5: p. 172, 1926.

CHAPTER XII
PLOW HITCHES
Next in importance to the problem of making a plow that will work
nder average conditions is the problem of hitching the plow to the prime
over, or the power that is to draw it. The hitching ·of horses requires
. erent arrangements front that of tractors. The same principles, haw-
ver, are involved, but they must be handled differently. The problem is
o get all the pulling forces of the power and the resistance forces of tJae
oad in equilibrium, both vertically and horizontally.
154. Hitch.-The hitch is composed of the parts connecting the plow
·th the power. It may be simple, consisting of only one or two parts, or
t may consist of a multiplicity of bars, braces, angles, and levers arranged
o absorb certain vertical and horizontal forces.
155. Center of Power.-The center of power is often described as the
point of hitch, or center of pull. Whatever the term used, the point
eferred to is the center of the power, which is mostly horizontal, but the
ertical forces must also be con'sidered.
On a tractor it is the point where the drawbar is attached, which is
ways the middle of the .actor halfway between the wheels. In most
tractors the drawbar can be shifted sidewise to compromise with the hitch
n the tool. If horses are used, the center of power with one horse is
midway between his shoulders or hame tugs (Fig. 135). If two horses are
sed, the center of power will be halfway between the two animals.
156. Center of Load or Resistance.- The center of load is often termed
center of draft. As shown in Fig. 130, this is the point within the plow
about which all the forces acting on the plow are balanced. l
157. Line of Hitch.-The line of hitch or line of draft is an imaginary
straight line passing from the center of load or resistance through the
clevis or hitch to the center of power where the hitch is attached to the
power. This definition applies to both the vertical and horizontal
adjustment.
158. Side Draft.-Side draft is produced when the center of load or
resistance is not directly behind fhe center of power. The center of load is
out of line or to one side of the true line of hitch or draft. When side draft
is present, there may be a pull sidewise on either the power or the load,
depending upon the hitch.
1 Agr. Eng., Vol. 17, No.1, p. 5, 1936.
89
It is a difficult problem to hitch a single-bottom plow attached closely

to a fairly wide tractor. The center of power and the center of load are so
close together longitudinally and so much out o.f line horizontally that a
FIG. 131.-Vertical adjustment of hitch on horse-drawn plow.
good hitch is hard to. obtain. In such a case the plow is put fart~r back,
and some of the side forces are taken care of with a long landside and rear
~ .~. _.
FIG. 132.-Hitch, showing the effect of different sizes of horses.
furro.w wheel. Moving the plow farther back reduces the angle of pull
with a wide power unit. l
159 . . Vertical Adjustment of Hitches.-With the horse as a source

of power, the proper arrangement for the hitch is that there sho.uld
1 {lgr. Eng. , Vol. 15, No. 11, p . 387, 1934.
PLOW HITCHES 91
ibe a straight line extending from the center of resistance A (Fig. 131)
through the clevis C to the point E where the tugs are fastened to the
ha.mes. This should be the proper adjustment vertically. If the hitch

at the clevis is too high, as B, the tendency will be to
throw the plow deeper into the soil because of the fact
that the line of hitch is seeking the straight line just
mentioned. The reverse action will be true, if the hitch
is lowered to D below that of a traight line. This principle
applies to all horse-drawn plows from walking to gang,
and also to tractor-drawn plows, both moldboard and disk.
160. Horizontal Adjustment of Hitches.-To hitch
the plow to make it take the proper furrow width, the
center of load or resistance must also be considered. A
straight line must pa.ss from the center of load through the
clevis to the center of power between the tugs. (Fig. 135)'. I
I
U the plow bottom is in perfect condition and the hitch \
I
properly adjusted, the ordinary walking plow should I
I I
operate with very little assistance from the operator. I I
When thTee or more horses are used, the hitch problem is OBe
greatly increased because the right-band horse walks in the

furrow throwing the other two upon the unplowed land so
that the center of power does not coincide with the center
of load, thus, creating side draft. Some operators attempt
to remedy this on walking plows by the use of short
eveners. The effect upon the team can be seen readily FIG. 135.-
because the pull to the side causes additional trouble. The center of
A good length of singletree is 26 inches. For the good shouldthe power
be
of the horse, nothing shorter than this should ever be directly ahead
used. It is even better to use a 28 or 3D-inch singletree, of the center of
the load.
which will give more clearance for tbe horse.
161. Balancing Teams.-When working two horses to a load, it is
often found that they are not well matched. It is not an uncommon
sight to see a heavy and a light horse being'worked together. Naturaliy,

the lighter Horse is at a disadvantage. There are two ways of construct-
ing the evener to correct this.
1. By adjusting the pin holes at the ends of the evener.
2. By adjusting the draft hole at the center of t he evener
FIG. 136.-A three-horse evener for tongue implements.
Adjusting the pin holes at the ends of the evener is nothing more
than making one end of the evener shorter than the other by having
another hole closer in. .The method used to determine the distance the
hole is moved is shown by the following example: Assume that a team con-
sists of a I ,500-pound and a I,OOO-pound horse. The load each should
FIG. 137. -Four-horse evener constructed to help prevent side draft.
pull is 150 and 100 pounds, respectively. If the pin hole for the lighter
horse is 24 inches from the draft hole, the length of the evenel' arm fOl';the
other horse is found as follows: . .
Take the length of the evener arm for the li~ter horse and multiply
that by the pounds it should pull. Divide the result obtained by the
pounds the heavier horse should pull. The result will be the length .of
evener arm for the heavier horse.
PLOW HITCHES 93
FIG. 138.-Six-horse hitch. (Horse FIG. 139.-Commer cial

Association of Amel·ica.) hitch.
1
94 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMEN7'
Hence:
24 X 100 = 150 X X.
150X = 2,400.
X = 2,400
150
X = 16.
When the draft hole is used it is moved only half the amount the
pin hole was moved, because 1 inch at the draft hole is equivalent to
2 inches, since it means 1 inch on each end of the evener. The length •
of the ends is obtained by the same method as with the pin holes. '
A B
FIG. 140.-Typical hitch used on moldboard plows. Note spring release. A, hitch set
for 2-furrow 12-inch plow; B, hitch set for 2-fur row 14-inch plow.
This rule will work equally well for a three-, four-, or five-horse
evener when two or three horses are considered as one.
162. Multiple Horse Hitches.-In this modern age where efficiency i
is a password and more acres and horses per man is the cry, much interest
is being shown in big-team hitches. The construction of hitches to
allow as many as 16 or more horses to work together i,s comparatively
a simple task.
The Horse Association of America has a number of excellent com-
binations, one of which is shown in Fig. 138.
Farmers often write in and ask, "How can I hitch six horses abreast,
without side draft, to a 1isk plow and have all the horses walk on the
unplowed ground except the right one?" ~e answer is, "It can't be
done." However, Fig. 137 shows a special hitch, manufactured by a
number of concerns, that allows hitching abreast and partially com-
pensates the side draft. The best way to solve such a problem is to
hitch the horses tandem as shown in Figs. 138 and 139.
PLOW HITCHES 95
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FIG. 143.-Hitch too high a,t A.
FIG. 144.-Horizontal tractor hitches for two-, three- and four-bottom plows with right
wheels of tractor in furrow .
PLOW HITCHES 97
FIG. 145.-Horizontal hitch for two 14-inch plow bottoms to a general purpose tractor.
FIG. 146.-llIustration shows a four-disk tractor plow, each disk cutting 8 inches, mak-
ing the total cut of the plow 32 inches. One-half the total cut, measured from top of furrow
wall , is 16 in ches, or the center line of draft on this plow. The center of cut is always the
line of draft on a disk plow.
FIG. 147.-Special hitch for tractor orchard plows.
FIG. 148.-Plows for the small one-plow general purpose tractor are hitched underneath ,
between the front and rear wheels to compensate side draft.
. FIG. 149.-Spring relea~e hitch for disk plows.

PLOW HITCHES 99
163. Tractor- Plow Hitches.-With the advent of the tractor to
furnish power for pulling farm tools, the problem of hitching in such a
manner as to eliminate side draft on both the plow and the tractor must
be studied. Plow designers have worked out many different arrange-
ments, but the hitch in general use is of the type shown in Fig. 140. Of
FIG. 150.-A tractor stop hitch. When stop hitch is tripped, the engine clutch is
automatically disengaged. The tractor is stopped before the plow is uncoupled. Tbe plow
i uncoupled without tbe operator's getting off tbe seat.
course, there are many kinds of this type of hitch differing only in the
way the parts are fitted together and means of adjustment.
Tractor hitching, like horse hitching, is a question of hitching in
uch a way that there will be no side draft-at least as little as possible.
again it is necessary to have the center of power and center of load
coincide with the line of hitch-both vertically and horizontally.
FIo, 151.- Hitcb for use with tractor plows when on hillsides to keep plow in proper posi-
tion and prevent it from sliding down-bill.
Figure 141 shows the correct vertical adjustment for a tractor and
plow when the line of hitch is BGG. If the hitch at the clevis is raised
to K, there would be a tendency for the pull to seek the true line of
hitch and, consequently, there would be a downward force at K, causing
extra weight on the front wheels of the plow, while the rear wheel would
be relieved of a part of its load. If the hitch is changed to H, part of
the weight of the plow would be supported by the tractor. The extra
pressure would be transferred to the rear wheel.
Figure 142 shows correct hitching while Fig. 143 shows the hit,ch at
A too high.
Figures 144 to 147 show horizontal tractor hitching fo~' different _size
plows. With most of the smaller outfits, it is necessary to run the right
wheels of the tractor ill the furrow in order to bring the center of power
over as far as possible, in front of the center of load. This greatly
reduces the side draft.
CHAPTER XIII
DRAFT OF PLOWS
.
P lowing is recognized as the greatest labor-consuming operation in the
world. There is no doubt that it is the job on the farm that' takes the
roost power. It is important that every effort should be made to
reduce this power used to the minimum in keeping with good practice.
Davidson gives the following factors which must be considered in
determining the actual draft of the plow:
Depth of plowing, width of plow, character of soil, moisture, previous treat-
ment of soil, smoothness of surface, shape of moldboard, sharpness of share;
rigidity of plow, and speed.
164. Draft as Affected by Depth of Plowing.-It is almost impossible
to make a plow run at a constant uniform depth no matter how well it
roay be adjusted. Naturally, the deeper the plow penetrates the soil,
t he more draft there will be. Tests indicate that a 14-inch plow will
increase in draft an average of 92 pounds for each inch increase in depth. t
Taking into" consideration the whole United States and the various con-
ditions encountered in· the various parts of the cOl1ntry, and the different
types of plows used, whether walking, gang, or tractor plow, the average
dept h of plowing for all these conditions will be around 5 inches. The
draft of any plow can be determined by an instrument called a dynamom-
eter, which registers the pull or draft of the plow over a measured dis-
tance. Then, knowing the speed of the team and the time it took to
travel this distanc~, the horsepower, as well as the average draft per unit
of the cross-section of the f~rrow slice, can be determined.
' . _ force X distance traveled in feet per minute.
H orsepower - 33,000
, 165. Plow Draft as Affected by the Width of the Furrow.-As in the

cas~ of the depth of the plow affecting the draft of the plow, the width of
t he furrow will also affect it. Naturally, the wider the plow, the more
sQiJ. Will be turned. over and the more draft there will be. The width of
furrow that a plow cuts cannot be controlled absolutely. This is espe-
cialIy true in the walking plow. With the gang plow, however, the bot-
toms are spaced equally and if the plow is properly adjusted to cut its
1 Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans ., Vol. XIV, p. 44, 1920.
. - 101
T-'(""""
"
- .--'1,-........ '.,.,---
...
" -
proper width of furrow, and all other factors are working perfectly, each
bottom will cut a constant uniform width of furrow. It does not follow
that each furrow slice will give the same resistance. There are some
natural influences that will affect the resistance of furrows. Usually, the
draft of the plow is given in the number of pounds pulled per square inch of
the cross-section of the furrow slice. To determine this, the depth and
width of furrow must be considered. The number of square inches in a
cross-section of a furrow slice can be determined by multiplying the depth
by the width of the furrow. That is, a plow going 6 inches deep and cut-
ting the furrow slice 14 inches wide will give a cross-sectional area of
84 square inches. Then, if the total draft for the whole plow is·
' ... 500 pounds, the draft per square inch would be 500 divided by 84, or
5.95 pounds per square inch.
166. Character of Soil.-The character of the soil, whether it be
sandy, clay, loam, or blackland will have a great deal to do with the
. . number of pounds pulled or draft of the plow. A less number of pounds

is required to pull a plow in sandy soil than in a stiff gumbo or clay soil.
The draft. of the plow is affected by soil conditions as well as the type of
soil, and will range from 2 to 3 pounds up to 20 pounds per square inch.
167. Moisture.-The amount of moisture in the soil will also affect
the draft or total pounds required to move the plow. The amount of
moisture frequently will determine the time when the plowing should be
done, whether it should be in the spring or in the fall. When there
is a good season, or plenty of moisture in the soil, the draft is not so great
as when plo,ving is attempted when the ground is hard and dry. When
the ground is very hard, the plow will not penetrate the soil easily. This"
in itself, will indicate that the draft will be increased, owing to lack of
moisture.
168. Previous Treatment of the Soil.-The draft of the plow will oe •
,,' influenced to a considerable extent by the previous treatment to which
the soil has been subjected; that is, whether it has been properly plowed
and cultivated, whether the crop planted on the soil before was cultivated"
!, '
whether it was harrowed by a disk harrow before being plowed, or allowed'
'+ to go untreated. The amount of straw and organic matter that may have
¥" been covered by a previous plowing will also affect the draft because
I,
organic matter will cause the soil to become mellow and break up easier ..
169. Smoothness of Surface.-If the surface of the soil is uneven,
,
naturally, the water will collect in the low places and leave the high
places without the required amount of moisture. Then, of course, when
the plow comes to the moist places it will plow easier than where there is a
lack of moisture, so that the draft is affected directly from the unevenness
of the ground. While, if the plow is a gang plow of the unit type and the
surlace is not even, some of the plows will go much deeper than others,
'\ '
~
'II
.. ~ 1,1,1' .-;1 ~. I ._
DRAFT OF PLOWS 103
oausing an overload. Up and down hill causes heavy draft one way and
light the other.
170. Shape of Moldboard.-As has already been indicated, the draft
of the plow will be affected by the shape of the moldboard, whether stub-
ble, general purpose, blackland, or sod. The tests run by Ocock 1 indicate,
to some extent, the difference of draft as effected by the shape of the mold-
board. The results of his tests show that the stubble moldboard gives
a greater draft than that of the sod moldboard, and the general purpose
comes in between these. His conclusions were that the more abrupt the
curve, the greater the draft. The less curvature there is to the mold-
board, the less the pulverizing action upon the furrow slice and, naturally,
the less pressure will be exerted upon the surface of the moldboard, result-
ing in less draft. Collins 2 found, in his tests at Ames, Iowa, that the
type of bottom did not materially influence the draft; that an increase in
speed produced about the same increase in draft with any type of bottom.
Upon analyzing the results, it is shown that a sod bottom has a long sec-
tion of furrow slice which is carried on the share and moldboard and it
must be pushed off. The greater area in contact results in a correspond-
ing increase in frictional resistance and draft.
171. Sharpness of Share.-The share must cut the furrow slice
loose from the ground and a large percentage of the draft of the plow
results from cutting the furrow slice loose. As a result of some tests
made by Collins 2 to determine the draft necessary for cutting and turning
the furrow slice, and the draft of the plow alone, he has the following
to say:
The draft of the plow on the ground, 18 per cent; draft due to turning furrow
slice, 34 per cent; draft due to cutting slice, 48 per cent.
'.
Thus, it is seen that practically 50 per cent of the total draft of the
plow is used in cutting the furrow slice. A test was run to determine
the effect of dull shares and sharp shares upon the draft of the plow. In
a test on sandy loam soil the difference in draft of a sharp share was
almost negligible. In a field of bluegrass sod there was a difference of
14 per cent in favor of the sharp share. In soil that is soft and mellow
the sharpness of the share will not matter so much, but if there are many
foots or the soil is comparatively hard or lacks moisture, a sharp share
is to be advocated.
172. Hitch.- The angle of hitch will also affect the draft of the plow.
If the angle is short and sharp and the implement hitched close to the
point of power, there will be a tendency to lift the plow which will take
1 Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans ., VoL VI, p. 13, 1912.

I Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans., Vol. XIV, p. 39, 1920.
some of the weight of the plow off the ground and slightly decrease the
draft. The reverse will be true if the hitch is farther away.
173. Rigidity of Plows.-Some plows may not be 'constructed rigidly
enough to secure a uniform depth of penetration and a uniform width
of furrow. It is important that they should be, because of the effect
that the depth and width of the furrow will have upon the draft .of the
plow.
174. Speed.-Some tests have been made to determine- the effect
of speed on the draft of plows. All these tests have shown conclusively
that there is an increase in draft as the speed increases. The results
of the tests made in California by Davidson, Fletcher, and Collins l were
as follows:
In clay loam speed 1 mile per hour-draft, 100 per cent. Speed 2 miles per
hour- draft 100 to 114 per cent. Speed 3 miles per hour-dmft 128 per cent.
Speed 4 miles per hour-draft 142 per cent.
T ests in Iowa black-loam soil gave the following results:
Speed 1 mile per hom- draft 100 per cent. Speed 2 miles per hour-draft
117 per cent. Speed 4 miles per hour- draft 126 per cent.
The conclusions were: that an increase of the field speed of a
plow with a general purpose moldboard, from 2 to 3 miles per hour,
resulted in an increase of draft from 8 to 12 per cent, varying with the
soil. Doubling the speed will result in an increase of draft from 16 to
25 per cent. The amount of work accomplished is increased from 50
to 100 per cent, respectively. It is to be remembered that practically
50 per cent of this task of plowing is consumed in cutting -the furrow
slice. The conclusions reached by Collins in his tests in Iowa, in
TABLE I1. -RATE OF TRAVElL
Miles per hour I Feet per minute \ Miles per hou r \ Feet per minute
1 88 4 352
IX 110 4~ 374
172" 132 472" 396 ,
1% 154 4% 418
2 176 5 440
2X 198 5X 462
272" 220 572" 484
2% 242 5% 508
3 264 6 528
3~ 286
3U 308
3% 330
1 Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans. , Vol. XIII, p. 69, 1920.

j
. "
. •1', "\.1 '.'1
DRAFT OF PLOWS 105
1920, were that the increase in draft, due to speed, is applied to that part
of the total which is required for tuming and pulverizing. This varies
with the speed 'from less than one-third to about one-half the total draft
of the plow within a range of 2 to 4 miles per hour.
Studies made in Ohio by Ashley, Reed, and Glaves l indicated that the
average increase in draft, due to increased speeds, with two bottoms
was 1,17 pounds per square ineh of furrow slice for each mile per hour
increase in speed.
TABLE IlL-CHART SHOWDm ACRES COVERED PER HOUR WITH DIFFERENT WIDTHS
'J OF IMPLEMENTS AT VARIOUS SPEEDS!
Acres Miles ,L
Ft,-In, per Hour per Hour
(l) -\'2. 'I ,I
~. J '-
16'
3
'\,
, I
.' .L",
·Il.!
,
' "
7
1.6- ':\2
!4' q
22·
(2)-24·
2&·
28·_
/ "
30. ----__ ....

&.;'n
3L:M
78 13
7 '3'[
m: 15
f;2,!1
%'11'
'16
~.( :16
9
)"
Usual
Range
S~
of
Horse
r .1%
,2
TI,
';''34·
-- --__,~
---1" __
·z~
(3)-36, I, ,I/a----__ ·3
~&. ,
4'.
4Z.
1)4'
I~."~-- ---~ 3~
---_ ' 3i4
,'", JL: l~ .:' '.3~

46~ ~ 7
(4}-48. 2 :i~ ""... 4
5'1, , 2~:22~ 1.-, /"" '4~
54· 1)2· 76 /",,"""". 4Y2
,l,' 2% ",,- ,v
57- 2"':211s """,,/ ·474
(5}-60. 3- / ·5
63. I _;'3~"" • ~~
6& - /)~:_3% • 5~
6Q. ",,"" 4~ I~ • 5}:(
I'- •
(6)-72. ,.../ 41,-4i:\ ·6 ,I
15· ,.../ '5~4% 61\·
18· ",,/ ,~"", -6)2
81' ",,// , ... ~. 6~·
[l)-S4:' ' ,i'L.t. 716- 1
GO- ,'C "7~:7!-2
e.r'' l -_I
.8
'
(8)- 96: '
102: 9!~ 8~· 8~
'qli 8%: 2
(9)-108: JO.f,o:~" , q~: 91
114: 1I.f,,1 q~:9!1!
(10).120: 12I ~ '4. 10
t
Copyrighted, 1933, by International Har"ester Company of America, Inc. (UBed by special per-
asion of the company.)
I Progress Report on Draft of Plows Used for Corn Borer Control. U. S. Dept.
r., Bur. Agr. Eng., 1932. .

175. Rate of Plowing.-One 14-inch plow bottom pulled at the rate

of 2Yz miles per hour will plow approximately 1 Ys 2 or 0.3 acre in 1 hour.
Some time, however, must be allowed ' for turning which will depend on
the shape and size of the field and how it is laid out. For example, with
a two-plow outfit in a field 80 rod s long, where lands of average width are
struck out and the turning is done on headlands, about 6 per cent of the
time is spent in turning at the ends. Table III shows the acreage plowed
with different width plows when drawn at different speeds.
A four-plow outfit, of course, will accomplish about twice as much
as the two, if both are run at the same
speed; and a six-plow outfit twice as
much as the three-plow outfit. One
acre contains 43,560 square feet, or 160 .
square rods. A 14-inch furrow 1 mile
long equals 6,160 square feet.
176. Draft as Affected by Attach-
ments.-Ashley, Reed, and Glav!'ls'
found that two 10-foot wires increas~
the draft about 2 per cent, an ordina'ry
jointer absorbs about 7 per cent of the
power when used with a coulter, and
the jointer alone requires less power than
a combination coulter and jointer.
FlO. 152.-Cross-section of roller hear- They found that the covering wires,
ing for disk plow.
coulter, and jointer together absorb
between 10 and 15 per CPllt of the total power required to pull the plow
with attachments.
177. Effect of Grades.- When on a grade, the effective drawbar pull
of a tractor is lessened 1 per cent for each per cent of grade. For example,
the weight of the tractor ready for work with an operator and a three-
bottom plow is approximately 7,600 pounds. To negotiate a 10 pet'
cent grade with this outfit would require an additional power equivalent
to a pull at the draw bar of 760 pounds.
178. Other Factors Affecting the Draft of Plo~s.-Scouring of plows
will influence the draft. If there is a smooth, polished surface for the
soil to slip over, it is obvious that there will be less friction and draft.
The weight of the implement cannot be overlooked. A heavy bulky .
machine will pull heavier than one that is light.
179. Draft of Disk Plows.-Practically all draft tests on plows have
been made with the moldboard type. The few made with the disk
plow seem to indicate t.hat it is slightly lighter in draft than the mold-
1 Progress Report on Draft of Plows used for Corn Borer Control, U. S. Dept.
Agr., Bur. of Agr. Eng., 1932.

DRAFT OF PLOWS 107
Doard, when plowing under similar conditions and turning the same
volume of soil. The type of soil is the greatest external factor to consider
in the draft of any plow. In very ha rl. ground, it is often necessary to
add weight to the wheels to force the plow into the soil. Of course, the
added weight will create more draft.
FIG. 153.-Cross-section of cone-type disk-plow bearing: 1, point where grease cup is

attached; 2, oil tube; 3, cup for cone; 4, cone; 5, flange to hold bearing in place; 6, disk
casting to hold disk blade; 7, bolt to hold disk blade.
Factors incorporated in the plow are very important. The bearings

of the disk-plow blade affect the draft. According to tests conducted
by Hardy l a plain cone bearing will pull 23 per cent heavier than
a ball or roller bearing. Figure 152 shows a roller bearing, while Fig. 153
shows a plain cone bearing.
The type of scraper used to clean the disk will also affect the draft.
Hardy's tests indicate that the revolving type gave slightly less draft
than the spade type.
1 HARDY, E. A., Univ. Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
CHAPTER XIV
PLOW TROUBLE S, ADJUSTMENTS, DUTY, COST OF OPERATION

AND LAYIN G OUT FIELDS FOR P LOWING
The efficiency of any farm machine depends, largely, upon the elimi-
nation of troubles. Each class of plow, moldboard, and disk, as well as
each type of walking, riding, and horse- and tractor-drawn plows has
troubles and adjustments which are common to all. They also have.
troubles and adjustments that !'Lre applicable only to one certain type.
WALKIN G-PLOW TROUBLES
180. Running Too Deep.-Running too deep is a common trouble, t
making it necessary for the operator to keep pressure upon the handles.
FIG. 154.-TIlustrating bow beams are landed [or different size teams.
This tendency to plow too deep may be caused by too much suction;
the vertical hitch of the clevis may be too high; or the beam may be bent
upward. It is not often that a plow will have too much down suction,
but if this does happen the remedy is a very simple one: decrease the
amount of suction. If the hitch has been placed too high, this can be
remedied by lowering the vertical hitch at the clevis; shortening the traces
to bring the horses closer to the plow will also remedy this trouble. If the
beam has been sprung or bent upward, as it may with steel beams, itis
very difficult to bend the beam back to the original shape. The best .
remedy is to get a new beam.
181. Failure to Plow Deep Enough. -This trouble may be due to
a number of causes, some of which are the reverse of deep plowing; such
as, the hitch too low and the beam bent down. All these troubles are
indicated by the operator having to lift up on the handles to make the
plow penetrate the soil. If the hitch is too low this can be remedied by
raising it at the clevis or lengthening the traces and moving the horses
108
PLOW TROUBLES, ADJUSTMENTS, DUTY, C(JST OF OPERATION 109
away from the plow. If the beam is bent downward, the same remedy
is used as in the case of the beam being bent upward. If the share has
become dull, it should be taken off and sharpened. It may also need
repointing. If the plow will not enter the ground because of its being
too hard, the plow may be forced into the grOlmd by adding weight.
122. Not Taking Enough Land.-When a plow fails to take the
proper amount of land the following things may be wrong: too little
horizontal suction; hitch too far to
the left; too much wing bearing; beam
sprung to the left; improper landing
of beam (Fig. 154); landed too much
in the rear; coulters may not be set
properly. The remedy for all these clearance - _"
causes is simple and indicated by the
cause of the trouble.
183. Taking Too Much Land.-
This trouble is just the reverse of the FIG. 155.-Method of adjusting landside
and heel clearance.
previous one, and the causes may also
be just the opposite; su ch as, hitch too far to the right; too much
horizontal suction; not enough wing bearing; beam bent toward the open
furrow; jointer or coulter set improperly, leading toward the land. The
remedies for these causes are obvious.
184. Failure to Scour.-Failure to scour is a very common trouble
in the Southwest, in the blackland se"ction, and in the close grain soils
of the river bottoms. The plow is said to scour when the soil sheds clean
from the moldboard. When non-scouring occurs, the soil will stick to
the plow and will not shed off. Non-scouring may result from a number
of causes:
1. The lack of an earth polish.
2. Improper plow adjustment.
3. Poor fitting of share and moldboard.
4. Cutting edge of share not level.
5. No suction.
6. Soil conditions not right.
7. Soft spots or irregularities in the moldboard.
8. Slmpe of bottom with relation to soil texture.
9. Speed.
10. Type of bottom not suited to soil.
The lack of polish may be caused by not having removed the special
preparation placed on the plow by the manufacturer to prevent rusting
until it reaches the hands of the plowman. This varnish-like covering
should be removed with a varnish remover or lye. If lye is used, care
should be taken that the surface is thoroughly washed and wiped dry
after application. If this is not done, the surface is likely to be pitted.
Any plow that is made of metal that is not hard enough to withstand
the scratching of the soil and will not take a good polish is always likely
to give trouble. When plows are completed at the factory, the surface
is finished by grinding. Grains left by the grinding process should,
run in the same direction that the furrow slice moves over the plow, or
lengthwise of the moldboard. If this is done and the temper \.:Jarefully
made in the high-carbon steel, very little trouble is likely to be encoun-
tered by non-scouring in the average soil.
Improper adjustments causing non-scouring are the result of poor
care of the plow. If the new share is placed on the plow and care not
taken to place and fit it snugly to the moldboard so that they will Qe
of the s~me level on the surface at the joint, it is likely to leave a place
where there will not be enough pressure to prevent the soil from sticking.
A dull cutting edge and no suction can be remedied by sharpening
and placing 'more suction in the share to ake it penetrate and give
pressure on the moldboard. It might be said just here in connection
with the pressure of the furrow slice, that non-scouring can be remedied,
to some extent, by increasing the pressure of the furrow slice upon the
moldboard, as \'.rill be seen under the discussion of speed. The soil
conditions may not always be just right for good scouring. The lack
of a proper amount of moisture in the soil will sometimes cause non-
scouring. Very little difficulty is ever encountered, however, in sandy
and loamy soils. It is the clay and clinging soil that gives trouble. If
the plow has not been hardened uniformly all over the surface, thereby
leaving soft spots, the surface \\rill wear away faster and cause dents
where soil will hang and cling. Non-scouring may also be due to the
use of improper plow shapes.
The lack of the proper speed will sometimes cause the plow not to
scour. The plowman will often notice that if the speed is increased in
. the nO"ll-scouring part of the field, that the soil will shed much better.
This is, of course, due to the pressure resulting from an increase of speed,
practically forcing the soil off the surface o£ the moldboard. There are
some conditions, however, under which high speed may cause failure to
scour.
185. Methods Used to Aid Scouring.-Many interesting attempts
have been made in the close fitting soils of the Southwest to provide a
type of plow that will scour under almost all ~onditions. In some few
instances farmers will be found who make a practice of using plaster 'of
Paris on their plow moldboards. Of course, it must be replaced fre-
quently, oftentimes once every day.
Other attempts have been made yvith special types of bottoms filled
with holes through which water is allowed to flow. The best result
obtained along this line is that of hellting the moldboard by the use of
pLOW TRO UBLES, ADJUSTMENTS, DUTY, COST OF OPERATION 111
the exhaust from a tractor. A number of experiments run with an

outfit equipped with pipes for heating the moldboard gave very good
results. Those boards that were heated, shed the soil and scoured well.
Moldboards that were on the same plow that were not heated would
not scour. This is directly in line with the observations made by other
plowmen who have noted that after the plow has stood in the sunshine
and become heated, it plows better than after it has become cooled.
Recent experiments in England 1 show that when an electric current
is passed through the soil having the moldboard as the negative electrode
the soil would slip over the plow easier. It appeares that the whole
problem resolves into a soil problem and the effect of heat on soil colloids.
Nichols 2 found that if the metal was hot, a decrease in the sliding friction
was observed, but if the metal was cold and the soil was warm, the
moisture films in contact with metal adhered to it.
186. Excessive Draft.-Some of the things discussed in the draft of
plows that may give excessive draft in ordinary walking plows are: the
hitch, the condition of the share, side draft, position and type of mold-
board, set of the plow, and the condition and set of the coulters.
SULKY-PLOW TROUBLES AND ADJUSTMENTS
Since the sulky plow is a riding plow, the troubles encountered will
be somewhat different. It is remembered that the plow is mounted on
three wheels which support the weight of the plow bottom and at the
same time influence the operation. Many of the troubles discussed
under the walking plow are applicable to the sulky plow.
187. Draft of Sulky Plows.- The principal trouble of the sulky plow
is that of the heavy draft, which may be caused from a combination of
several troubles: dull shares, too much suction, too much landside fric-
tion. The remedy for dull shares is obvious. Too much vertical sllction
may result from the rear of the plow bottom being raised too high upon
the rear furrow wheel shank or the rear of the beam elevated too much,
as on the frame type of plow.- Some authorities term this heel clearance 3
(Fig. 155). The suction is givtiln by elevating the rear of the plow.
When new shares are placed on the plow, this may cause too much
vertical suction, because the adjustment which has been made to suit the
old worn share has not been changed.
188. Adjustment of Wheels.- Too much landside friction may be
caused by the rear furrow wheel.not being set far enough to the left of the
landside and not having enough lead away from the furrow wall. In the
adjustment of the sulky plow, both frame and frameless, the rear furrow
1 J01N'. Agr. Sci., England, Vol. XIV, Part II.

2 Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans., Vol. XIX, pp. 173- 185, 1925.
a If. S. Dept. Agr. Cir., 132, p. 42, 1930.
wheel is usually given a lead away from the furrow wall and giv:es landside
clearance (Fig. 155). This throws the landside away from the furrow
face and prevents friction which would result from sliding along in contact
with the furrow face, as in the case of the walking plow. The front furrow
wheel is given a lead toward the furrow wall; it is also inclined. This is
done to hold the plow in its proper place and to overcome the side draft
caused by the pressure of the furrow slice upon the moldboard. It is
essential that all sulky plows be run with the frame level. .
189. Scouring.-Scouring has been discussed under that of walking
plows and will apply to the sulky plows.
GANG-PLOW TROUBLES
Since there is very little difference in the construction of the gang

plow and that of the sulky, the same troubles will apply; however, there
are one or two troubles that may be mentioned that are common only to
gang plows. .
190. Uneven Furrow Crown.-In an old gang plow that has become
badly worn, the furrow crown may .be left uneven; that is, some of the
furrows may be left high and others low. TillS may be due to the front
bottom cutting deeper than its mate or the front bottom cutting wider
than its mate. These troubles may be the result of the frame being loose
at the joint, or to the wearing at various points allowing considerable
play of the plow in operation.
The wheels of gang plows will influence the operation of the plow and
are handled slightly different from those on sulky plows. The rear wheel
is given a lead, usually away from the furrow ~all as in the case of the
sulky. The front furrow wheel is given a lead away from the furrow wall
because of the additional amount of side draft in the gang plow. The rear
wheel is also set to the left of the line of the landside to give landside
clearance.
TRACTOR-PLOW TROUBLES
There are many troubles encountered in tractor plows that do not
develop in the smaller types of walking or gang plows. To get the tra.ctor
plow properly adjusted to the source of power, to eliminate all troubles,
is a hard problem for the plowman.
191. Side Draft.-The problem of adjusting the tractor plow, ,for
side draft, has been discussed under the heading of Hitches.
192. Failure to Penetrate.-Failure to penetrate may be the result of
not having the proper amount of vertical suction. Vertical suction is
given to the tractor plow by raising the rear of the frame. This is usually
done by a setscrew on the axle of the rear furrow wheel (Fig. 156). By
turning the setscrew down, the bottoms will be raised at the rear, putting
PLOW TRQUBLES, ADJUSTMENTS, DU TY, COST OF OPERATION 113
them up on the point. This has the same result as when the handles of a
walking plow are raised.
193. Breaking the Furrow Wall.-This is caused by an ~xtra amount
of side draft, causing too much landside pressure on the furrow wall, and
the improper setting of the coulters.
194. Excessive Draft.-Excessive draft may be due to some of the
same causes as in the case of the gang plow, such as side draft, dull shares,
and too much vertical suction.
195. Non-scouring.-Non-scouring is also a trouble encountered in
engine gang plows and was discussed thoroughly under another heading.
Some points may be brought up, however, affecting scouring directly, as
in the gang plow. Should the plow have excessive side draft, this will
have an influence upon the scouring
quality. Adjustment of the hitch
will overcome this, somewhat, pro-
vided the pl~' bottoms are the
particular kinB for the soil in which
they are being operated. The set-
ting of the coulter farther to the left
or landward will influence scouring
under some conditions. The tend-
ency is to cut a wider furrow slice,
causing more pressure upon the
moldboard and thereby forcing the FIG. 156.- Setscrew to adjust vertical
suction on engine gang plow.
soil off clean. Moving it forward
. may also help. Again, the speed may be an influencing factor in the
engine gang plow. Most moldboards have been designed to work
at a speed of 2 to 27'2 miles per hour. If operated above this
. speed, thtp' may fail to scour properly. Then again, if the power is
overloaded, the speed may be reduced to such an extent that it will not
be up to the point where scouring will be the best.
DISK-PLOW TROUBLES .
The troubles and adjustments of the disk plow are different from
those of moldboard plows. Yet there are many troubles that are
common to both classes.
196. Failure to Penetrate.-Failure to penetrate soil may be due to a
lack of weight and the proper angle of the disk. The disk plow is weighted
and partially forced into the ground. Therefore, if the frame is made
rather light and the soil is hard, the plow may not penetrate easily.
Provision is made on most disk plows for the placing of additional weight,
especially on the rear wheel. Changing the angle of the disk to set
nearer perpendicular will increase the tendency to penetrate.
114 FARM MA CHI NERY AND EQUIPMENT
TABLE I V .-AcRES PLOWED WITH HORSES PER lO-HOUR DAY _.._
Location and item I Crew' I~~~e~ I Location and item I Crew ' Rate,
acres
Central Illinois: Minnesota-Marshall:

Spring: Sprin g wheat . .. .
. . .. . . .. 1-4 3 . 46
24-inch gang ...... . . . 1-4 4.94 Corn . . . ...... ...... 1-3 3.33
24-inch gang . . ..... . 1-5 4.64 Corn fodder .... . .. ........ 1-3 3.33
28-inch gan g .... . . 1-4 4.84 Oats .. . .. . ...... .. . . . .. . . .. 1-4 3.46
28-inch gang . . ...... . 1-5 5.06 Barley ........... . .. . . , . . .. 1-3 3. 16
28-inch gang ...... . 1-6 5 . 31 Fall rye . .............. . .. 1-4 3.33
Fa)): Old sod:
24-inch gang ..... • . 1-5 4.63 Flax ...... . .....•...• ... 1-4 3.43
28-inch gang ..... 1-4 4.33 Minnesota-Halstead:
28-inch gan ~ .. 1-5 4.80 Spring wheat ..... . .... . ... 1-5 4 . 03
28-inch gang . . 1-6 4.96 Corn .. . .... .. ........ . . ... 1- '; 4 . 05
Sprin g: Corn fodder . .. .. .... . . . . .. . . 1- 4 3.83
14-inch sulky . . . .. . . . 1-3 2.91 Corn sila-g c . . .. .. . .... . . . . ... 1-5 3.13
I6-inch Bulky . .. . . . . . 1-3 2.97 Oats . ...... ....•. . ....... .. . 1-4 4 . 02
16-inch sul ky . .. . .. . . .. . . . 1-4 3 . 29 Barley . . . . ...... ... . . . ...... 1-4 3 . 77
Fall : Fall rye .. . .... . ..... .. .... . . 1-5 3.83
14-inch sulky ... . ........ . 1-3 2.61 F lax .. . .. . ....... . . . .... .... 1-5 4.06
14-inch sulky ..... . . ..... . 1-4 2 . 89 Minnesota-North River Valley:
I6-inch sulky ... . ...... . . . 1-3 2 . 72 P otatoes . . . . . . . ... . .. . ... . . 1-5 4.65
16-inch sulky ........ . .. . . 1-4 3 .04 Montana-Gallatin Valley:
16-inch sulky . . .......... . 1-5 3 . 37 Wbeat ...... . ......... . .. . . 1-5 3.97
Pennsylvania-Chester County: Western New York:
14-inch walking ............ . 1-2 1.80 Sod :
24-inch gang ....... . ....... . 1-4 3.60 lO-inch walking . . . . . . .. . ... 1-2 1.52
Corn B elt: 12-in ch walking . ........... 1-2 1.53
8-inch walking .. . .. . .. .. . . . . 1-2 1 .6 14-inch walking .. .. .. ..... . 1-2 1.54
10-in ch walking . . .. . .. . . . . . 1-2 1.7 IO-inch walking .... . . . . .... 1-3 1 . 76
II-inch walking .. ... . 1-2 1.7 12-inch walking . ... . . ...... 1-3 1. 8 1
12-incb walking .... . . 1-2 1 .8 14-inch walking ... ... .. . . .. 1-3 1.85
14-inch walking . ......... .. . 1-2 1.9 IS-inch walking . . . . .... . .. 1-3 1.97
16-inch walking . . ... .. .... . 1- 2 2.0 Stubble:
8-inch walking •. . ...... . . 1-3 1. 8 IO-inch walking . . ... . . . . ... 1-2 1.72
IO-inch walking .... .... . . 1-3 2.0 12-inch wa lking . . ... . . • .... 1-2 1.71
ll-inch walking .. . .. .. . .. .. . 1-3 2. 1 14-inch walking ... . ... . . . .. 1-2 1. 79
I2-inch walking .......... . 1-3 2.2 lO-inch walking .... . ... . . . . 1-3 1. 89
14-inch walking ...... . . . 1-3 2.4 12-inch walk;ng. " . . . ... ... 1-3 1.92
16';nch walking .... ... . . . . . . 1-3 2.6 14-inch walking . . ...• .... .. 1-3 2 . 00
12-inch sulky ...... . 1-2 1.7 16-inch walking .... .• ... •. . 1-3 2.02
14-inch sulky .. . .. ...•.. 1_C_2 1.8 Sod:
IS-inch sulky .. ..... ...... . . 1-2 1.9 12-incn sulky ...... . .. . .... 1-3 2. 02
12-inch sulky ..... .. . . . ... . . 1- 3 2.3 14-inch sulky ...... . .... • .. 1-3 2.16
14-inch s ul ky . ... . . •.... • .. 1- 3 2 .5 10-inch sulky . . .. . . . . . . .. . 1-3 2.35
16-inch sulky .... . .. •. .. .•. . 1- 3 2.7 Stuhble:
12-inch sulky . . . . . . •.... . . . . 1-4 2.4 12-incb sulky .... .... ..... . 1-3 2.19
14-inch sulky . . . ..... . . . . .. . 1-4 2.6 14-incb sulky . .. .. ......... 1-3 2.28
IS-inch sulky . . .. . .... . . .. . . 1-4 2.9 16-inch sulky .... ... . ... . .. 1-3 2 . 46
24-inch gang. . . . . . . . . .. 1-4 4.1 North Dakota:
28-inch gang .... . . . .... .... . 1-4 4.4 28-inch ga n g ... . ........ • ... . 1-4 5.0
24-inch gang ... ..... . . .. . .. . 1- 5 4.6 28-inch gang ..... ... .. .. .. . .. 1-5 5.2
28-inch gang ..... . .... . .... . 1-5 4.9 28-inch gang .. . .. . . . ... . .... . 1-6 5.5
24-in ch gang ....... . . . . . . . . . 1-6 4.9 G eorgia:
28-inch gang .... . .... . ... .. . 1-6 5 .4 La urens County (cotton) ...... 1-1 . 8 1.6
Ida ho: Greene Coun ty (eotton) .... . .. I ~I .7 1.5
In orchard : Sumter County (cotton) . . ... . . 1-1 9 2. 0
12-inch . .......... . ... .. . 1-2 1 .38 Alabama:
Western Colorad o: Tallapoosa County (cotton ) . 1-1.2 1.2
In orchard .... 1-2 1.44 Marshall County (cotton) . 1-1.7 1 .6
Louisiana : Dale Coun ty (cotton) .... 1-1. 7 1. 6
Sod, lIat breaking: South Carolina:
lO-inch walking .. ... . 1-2 1.65 Anderson Cou nty (cotton). 1-1.8 1.8
12-inch walking .... . . 1-2 2.11 Barn well County (cotton). 1-1.4 . 1.6
Minnesota: Texas:
Fall p lowed: E llis Coun ty (cotton) ....... . . 1-3.3 2. 1
Spring wheat .....• .. .. 1-3 2.70 Rusk County (cotton) .... . . .. 1~ 1. 9 2.0
Spring plOWed : Utah:
Corn ....... . .. . . . . . . .. . . 1-3 2.74 Irrigated:
Corn fodder ...... . ...... . 1-3 2.71 Potato and sugar b eets .. 1-2 2 .78
Corn silage .... ... ... .. . • . 1-3 2.70 West Virginia:
Oats . .. ......... . .. . . ... . 1-3 2.75 Wh eat . ....... ... . ... ....... 1-2 1.33
Barley .........•.. ... . . . . 1-3 2 . 75 Corn ....... ...... .. .. . . . ... . 1-2 1. 43
Fall plowed: Washington-Wenatcbee :
01::::'1:···· ······ ·· ····· ·. 1-3 3 . 20 Orchard:
12-inch .. .. . . ... .... . . ..... 1-2 1.49
Flax ..••.... .. ........... 1-3 2.79 Wasbington-Yakima:
Orcha rd ... . . ... . .... 1-2 1. 58
1 First figure refers to number of men and second figure to number of horses in crew.
U. S. Dept. Aor. Yearbook, p . 1046, 1922.
PLOW TROUBLES, ADJUSTMENTS, DUTY, COST OF OPERATION 115
197. Width of Cut.-~

is often necessary to change the adjustments
on a disk plow as the hardness of the soil varies. With a soft soil a wide
furrow is desirable, but with a hard soil a narrow furrow is essentiaL
Moving the beam on the front furrow-wheel axle will influence the cut,
as will changing the position of hitch and lead of the furrow wheels.
TABLE Y.-ACRES PLOWED WITH TRACTORS PER lO-HOUR DAY
- Size of Depth,
Ra.te'l L Dca t'IOD, Size,
. Size of Depth. Ra.te.
Location, size, and type an d type
plow inches a.cres plow inches acres
South: Inches Nor thw estern United Inches

2-bottom disc . . .. '.' . 8 . 75 1 4.7 States-Continued.
2-bottom moldboard ..... . 5.3 30 horsepower, plow .. .. 113.0 . . 18 .2
3-bottom disc .. .. 6.5 20 horsepower I break . . 59.0 .. ..... 10.6
3-bottom moldboard .. 7.3 20 horsepower plow . ...
t 84.0 . ...... 13 .8
Corn Belt : G eneral United States:
2-plow (spring) .... . . 6.6 Stubble, 6-7 inches
2-plow (fall) . . . 6.5 d eep: Feet
3-plow (spring) . . ... . . 8.6 15 horsepower .. . ... . 7.4 14.0
3-plow (fall) . . .. . 8.6 20 horsepower . ... .. . 7.9 16.7
Ulinoi. : 22 horsepower ..... . . 9.7 .. .. ... 19.1
2-plow ... . ..... . 6.5 2r. horsepower . . . .. . . 11 . 3 . . ..... 20.6
3-plow ...... .... · · .. . . . . 8.7 3U horsepower ..... . . 11.5 . .. . . . . 22.5
2-plow (spring) . . . .. ... . • 7.0 32 horsepower ...... . 14.6 .. 29.6
2-plow (fall) .......... . . . 6.4 40 horsepower .. . . . . . 15.3 . ... ... 30.4
3-plow (spring) ....... .. . 8.7 45 horsepower .. . . .. . 10 . 0 ... . 20.0
3-plow (fall) . . .. . ... . ... . 8.1 60 horsepower . . .. .. . 12 .3 .. .. ... 24 . 8
North Dakota: Sod, depth 4.2--4 .7
15 horsepower. gasoline ... 77.1 5.9 14.0 inches:,
15 h orsepower, kerosene . . 80 .6 6.2 15.0 15 horsepower . .. .. . . 5.2.. . ... . 9.1
30 horsepower, gas .... .. . 110 .8 6.1 21 . 0 20 horsepower ... . •. . 6.1 ...... . 11. 9
30 horsepower, kerosene . . 123.3 6 .3 23 . 0 22 horsepower ....•.. 7.9 .. . . .. . 13.9
Illinois: 25 horsepower .. . ... . 9.8 16.2
2-plow ........ .... ..... . 6.5 30 horsepower .. . . .. . 9.7.. 17 .9
3-plow .... ... ...... . •... 8.8 32 horsepower . ..... . 13.0 23 . 9
'-plow ... .. . . .. . .... .. . . 10 . 0 40 horsepower ...... . 13.8 .... . .. 24.9
Illinois-Corn Belt: 45 horsepower ...... . 8.4....... 15.2
2-plow .. .... . ..... . . . .. . 6.7 60 horsepower ...... . 9.3 . . .... 15 .9
3-plow .. .. . . .. ... . .. . .. . 8.2 Central Illinois: I nches
4-plow . . .. . .. . .... . : ..• . 10.4 2-plow (spring) .. . ... . . . 28. 0 .. 6.9
S.plow . . . ... . . . . . .. ... . . 12 . 6 3-plow (spring) .... . . . . . 42.0 . . 8.5
6-plow . .. . . ... . . . ...... • 15. 3 2-plow (fall) . ......... . 28.0 . . 6.3
3-plow .... . ... .... ..... . 20.2 3-plow (fall) .. .. .. .. .. . 42.0 7.9
100plow .. ... .... . .. .. ' " 23.0 Minnesota :
Nol'th Dakot .. : Clay County .......... . 11.4
2-plow ..... . .. . . .. . . . 6 .3 Anoka County, 3-plow . . 6.5
3-plow . . ... •. . . . ..•... . . 8.5 Wisconsin:
4-plow . . ..... . •..... . .. • 10.9 Barron County, 3-plow . 9.0
Waupaca County, 2-
New York: plow . . .... . 7 .0
2-plow .... .. ... . 4.5 Michigan:
3-plow ... . .... . . 6.3 2-pl ow . . .. .. . 6 .0
Northwestern U n i t e d New Y 0 r k-~lon roe
States: County:
22 horsepower, break . ... . 78.0 15.1 2-plow ... , 3.0
22 horsepower, plow. . . . . . 122 . 0 22.6 Maine-Aroostook County:
30 horsepower, break.. . .. 78 . 0 13 .2 2-plow .. . .. . 5.2
1 Average d epth for region.

U. S. Dept. Aor. Yearbook, p. 1047, 1922.
116 FARM M ACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Under most conditions, the !:Pont furrow wheels should run straight
forward, parallel to the line of the furrow. If the plowing is exceptionally
hard, it may be given a slight lead to the furrow wall. Usually, the
wheels are given a lead toward the plowed ground to counteract the
side pressure of the furrow slices. Since disk plows do not have land-
sides, the wheels must hold the plow in position.
Should there be a tendency of the bottoms to trail, it may be due
to the hitch being too far to tbe right. This arrangement of the \1itch
will have a tendency for each of the bottoms to cut a narrow furrow width
due to their trailing behind one another.
Disk plows do not always cover trash as well as do moldboards. ThiR
is especially true when they are operated without scrapers. If the disk is
set rather flat from the vertical, it will not cover trash as well as when
set more nearly straight up and down. When set straight up and down,
the furrow slice will be thrown over more abruptly to the side. If the
scraper i s in use, the furrow slice will be taken from the disk and turned.
TABLE VI.-AVERAGE DEPTH OF PLOWING IN THE VARIO US STATES'
Fall, Spring, Fall, Spring,

St ate State
inches inches inches inches
I I I
Maine . . . . .. . . ... . ... 7.5 7 .6 North Dakota ... . . . 5 .0 4.7
New Hampshire . ...... 7.0 6.9 South Dakota .. . . .. 5.1 5.2
Vermont . .. . . ... . . ... 6 .5 6.3 Nebraska . . ......... 5.2 5.4
Massachusetts ... . . . . . 7.4 7. 8 Kansas ........... .. 4 .8 5 .0
Rhode Island .. ..... . . 6 .0 6 .3 Kentucky . ....... . . 5.9 6.0
Connecticut ........ . . 6.5 6 .4 Tennessee . . ...... .. 6.0 5.6
New York .... . .. . ... . 6.4 6.4 Alabama . . . .. ...... 5 .3 4.2
New Jersey ..... . . . . .. 6.4 6.9 Mississippi . ... . . . . . 4.0 3.3
Pennsylvania . .... . . . . 6.7 6.5 Louisiana . .... .. . ... 5 .0 4.3
Delaware .. ..... . .... 5.9 6.3 Texas .... . . ... . . . .. 4.9 4.2
Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 6.5 Oklahoma . . ..... . .. 4.5 4.5
Virginia . .... . .. ... . . . 6 .6 6.5 Arkansas ... . . . ..... 5.0 4.4
West Virginia . .. . . . . . 6 .1 6 .0 Montana . . ....... . . 5.5 5 .5
North Carolina ... .. , . . 6.5 5 .8 Wyoming ... . . ..... 5.9 5. 6
South Carolina .... .... 5.8 4.9 Colorado ... . . . ... . . 5.7 6.1
Georgia ...... .. ... . . . 5.1 4.0 New Mexico . . . . .. . . 5.6 5.2
Florida ... ..... '" . ... 5.7 4.7 Arizona ........ ' .. . 5.8 5.8
Ohio . . .... . . ..... . .. . 6.4 6.9 Utah ........ . .. . . . . 7.5 6 .7
Indiana .. . . . .. ...... . 6 .0 6.5 Nevada .. . ... . .... . 6 .6 6.7
Illinois .... . .. ... . .. . . 5 .7 5.3 Idaho . . . ........ . .. 6 .1 6.1
Michigan .. .. . ... . .... 6.7 6.4 Washington . . .. .... 6.4 l3.4
Wisconsin ..... .. . .. .. 6 .0 5.7 Oregon ... .. ....... . 6 .0 6.1
Minnesota ... .. . .... .. 5.4 5.0 California .. .... . . .. 6 1 6.5
Iowa ...... . . .... . . . . . 5 .7 5 .0
Missouri ... .. . . ... . .. 5. 6 5.6 United States .... 5.45 5 . 12
1 U. S . Dept. Aur. Yearbook, p . 700, 1918.
The scraper having a curved surface will turn the furrow slice better
than the straight type; however, the straight type will shed soil better
and give less trouble when sticky soils are being plowed. As a general
rule, the scraper should be set low and at an angle of about 35 degrees
with the disk. It is also tilted to throw the soil toward the furrow.
198. Duty of Plows.-There is considerable difference in the amount
of work that can be accomplished with different types of plows. Tables
IV and V show the average number of acres plowed per lO-hour day
with horses and tractors, for the different sections of the United States.
199. Depth of Plowing.-The average depth of plowing for the v;:trious
states is shown in Table VI.
200. Life of Plows.-According to studies made in Minnesota l the
average annual depreciation of walking plows is 5.8 per cent, sulky plows
8.34 per cent, and gang plows 6.41 per cent. .
Data collected in Iowa by Wallace 2 shows the average life of plows
for that section: walking and sulky plows 10 years, gang plows 7.76
years. The greatest item of expense was for new shares.
201. Cost of Plowing.- Jensen 3 figures the cost of plowing an acre
with a two-horse walking plow as follows: Acres plowed per day, 1.8.
Man-hours per acre, 5.55. Man labor cost, $0.83 per acre. Mule-hours
per acre, 11.0. Cost of mule labor per acre, $1.28. Total cost per acre,
$2.11.
A man-hour was figured to be worth $0.27 while a horse-hour was
worth $0.17. At this rate, horse plowing cost $2.63 per acre. When
$0.85 was figured for a tractor-hour, the total cost of plowing an acre
was $1.37. Of course, the unit allowed for man, horse, and tractor
hours will vary with the sections and conditions.
TABLE VII.-COMPARISON OF REQUIREMENTS PER ACRE OF HORSE AND TRACTOR
PLOWING l
Hours per acre with man and Hours per acre with man and
horse tractor
Man hours Horse hours Man hours I Tractor hours
Plowing ..... ··· ·.··· .. ... ······1 2.7 11.2 1.3 1.2
1 U. S. Dept. Agr. BuU. 1198, p. 9, 1924.
In some of the middle western states, where four- and five-bottom

plows are used, farm-power contractors, in 1936, charged from $1.10 to
1 Minn. AgT. Expt. Sta. B ull. 59.
2 Am. Soc. AgT. Eng. Trans ., Vol. XIX, p. 139, 1925.
3 S. C. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 221, p. 26, 1924.
$1.25 per acre for plowing under average conditions. For unusually
heavy land and small fields the charge ran as high as $1.77 per acre.
LAYING OUT FIELDS FOR PLOWING
Before starting to plow a field much time can be saved if the field
is first staked out in uniform width lands. Methods that leave dead
furrows rUIming down the slope should be avoided, as water may collect in
Heod lernd
_s:r B
d]_
- g
- A
Oeqd -furrow
'. -
, / fZ: -
,- _,;z--_ A BatK rurrow
A \
:~ A I
",
"
- OeCld furrow . I
'-
I
l rz
- .!Z._
_!Z..
CT
fl0
r
:
I
~
I
-
(T
-£2
Head lernd
FIG. 157.-Method of laying out field for plowing.
them and cause serious erosion. The method of starting at the sides and
plowing around' and around to finish in the center of the field will, if
practiced year after year, create low areas at the dead furrows.
202. Plowing Level Unterraced Fields.-If the field is comparatively
level, it can be advantageously plowed in lands. First, headlands approx-
imately twice the length of the tractor and plow should be staked off on
all sides. Mark out the headland by plowing shallow once around the
field, as indicated in Fig. 157, leaving the corners round to aid in plowing
the headland at the finish. Stake out the lands in uniform widths. A
multiple of the width of the capacity of the plow should be used. . A good
device for measuring lands is the A frame shown in Fig. 158. Plow the
first furrows through the middle of the second land, then back on the out-
side of the first land. Continue this procedure until turning is difficult
without making a figure-of-eight turn, then swing over and open up
another land and finish the first land on the return trips (Fig. 157) .
When all the lands have been plowed, the head-
land is plowed by either throwing the furrows
toward or away from the outside.
203. Plowing Terraced Fields.-Areas be-
tween terraces are irregular in width and the
most simple but undesirable method is to plow
the whole area between two terraces as one land.
This method leaves a dead furrow midway
between terraces and often results in serious
erosion. The most logical way of plowing terraced FIG. 158. -An A frame
land is to use a two-way plow. Begin on the for measuring fields in
place of stepping off.
down-hill side of the terrace, throw all furrows
up pill, and continue back and forth until the channel of the next
terrace down hill is reached. This method will leave the dead furrow in
the channel and aid in clearing it of accumulations of silt. The method
also aids in counteracting the down-hill movement of the soil.
FIG. 159. -Method of plowing a triangular field .
204. Plowing Triangular and Irregular-shaped Fields.-The simplest

method of plowing triangular- or irregular-shaped fields is to bisect the
angles, leaving a strip of equal width on each side of the line unplowed
so that all turning can be done on firm soil (Fig. 159). This method will,
if practiced, cause the development of deep dead furrows. The use of
two-way plows on irregular-shaped fields will leave no dead furrows
extending inward from the corners.
PART IV
SEED-BED PREP ARATION MACHINERY
CHAPTER XV
STALK CUTTERS, HARROWS, LAND ROLLERS, AND DRAGS
The action of the plow on the soil does not prepare an ideal seed bed.
Unless the soil is very sandy, loose, and mellow, it needs further pul-
verizing by the use of tools specially prepared for the purpose. These
tools are used principally in the preparation of the plowed ground for the
Lever for Raising
Cuffer HeOld)
Foot Lever for Raising

Sfa/k Hooks
Hub Cap for

, f" GreaS Ing
~Shock Absorbing
.' ondCompress/on
Spring
..............
CuHerHead
Bearing
to PrevenfChok/ng
FIG. 160.-8ingle-row stalk cutter .
seed. Some of them are used before plowing, however, others may be
used later to cultivate the growing plants.
STALK CUTTERS
205. Machinery for Cutting Stalks.-If the crop grown produces
large stalks, such as cotton and corn, it is necessary to cut them into short·
pieces before the ground can be plowed and vegetable matter buried.
Figure 160 shows an ordinary single-row stalk cutter. It is aiso built
in a two-row unit which has two cutting heads. It is this type that is
most generally used on corn and cotton stalks.
120
STALK CUTTERS, HARROWS, LAND ROLLERS, AND DRAGS 121
The cutting head consists of two spider castings to which are bolted
knives. Both sides of the knives are sharpened so tl~ey can be reversed
when one side becomes dull. Usually provision is made to prevent the
knives shearing the bolts that hold them on. This may be either a
shoulder for the knives to rest against or a projection of the casting
through the knife at the bolt hole.
Some cutters are built to prevent the cutting head from clogging with
stalks. Strips of sheet steel (Fig. 160) extending from the knife to the
axle keep the pieces of stalks from collecting in the center of the cutting
head where they may form a large ball, completely choking the machine.
Many farmers clean the head by burning, however, this practice is not
advocated.
Stalk hooks are necessary to pull the stalks parallel to the row so that
the knives can cut them'.
Trcmsporl sHd
Ifireh fOr /' I-beam sfeel rrorme
FIG. 161.- Two-row tractor rolling stalk cutter.
When in operation, 't he entire weight of the machine and operator is

placed upon the knives to force them into the soil and cut the stalks. To
prevent rigidity and roughness of riding, pressure or shock-absorbing
springs are provided (Fig. 160).
Other methods of disposing of stalks are:
1. Drag them down with a heavy weight, such as a railroad rail and run over them
with a tandem disk harrow.
2. Where cotton stalks are large, especially constructed, well-sharpened, angle-
iron cleats used on the rear wheels of a tra.ctor will cut up the staJks satisfactorily.
3. Homemade stalk cutters do excellent work in cutting up stalks. .A good stalk
cutter can be. made by attaching long knives to a cast-iron or wood drum.1
206. Tractor-drawn Stalk Cutter.-A two-row tractor-drawn rolling

stalk cutter is shown in Fig. 161. The four knives are made of tough
steel and are bolted to four forged-steel spiders. The cutting width of a
•
single head is 76 inches. Special hitches can be secured for a four- and
six-row hookup. The bar on top and in the center of the frame providEl9
a means of hitching a harrow behind the cutter. '
1 Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 362, p. 9, 1927.
l
For transporting, the machine is ended over on the transport skids.

A homemade tractor-drawn stalk cutter is shown in Fig. 162.
HARROWS
The harrow is an implement used to level the ground and crush the
clods, to stir the soil, prevent and eradicate weeds, and to cover seed.
FIG. 162.-Homemade tractor stalk cutter. (Photo by Bentley.)
There are four principaL kinds of harrows; namely; the spike-tooth, the
spring-tooth, the disk, and the acme.
207. Spike-tooth Harrows.-Spike-tooth harrows, as shown in Fig.
163, are so-called because the teeth resemble long spikes. This harrow
FIG. 163.-Rigid spike-tooth harrow equipped with harrow cart.
is also known as a peg-tooth han'ow, a drag harrow, a section ha1TO'l/), or a

smoothing harrow. The principal use of the spike-tooth harrow is to
smooth and leveillp the soil directly after plowing. It will stir th~ soil to
a depth of about 2 inches if weight.ed, but, as a general rule, it is not con-
sidered a very good clod crusher unless the soil is rather mellow. This
type of harrow is used in t he cultivation of corn allfl cotton and other

crops for the first time; it saves much time and labor. Spike-tooth
harrows are made in sections. Each section may be 4 to 5 feet wide
and h ave 25, 30, or 35 teeth. Several sections can be used together,
depending on the power available.
The harrow is made up of a number of teeth attached to bars, which
may be of steel or wood. If made of steel, t hey are usually U-shaped
steel bars. The teeth are then placed across the face of this U and held
firmly against the edges by means of
clamps, which may take a number of
forms, two of which are shown in
Fig. 164. The ends of t hese bars are
often protected by a guard rail (Fig.
165) which is a strap of steel placed
along the end of the bars to prevent
liJojhhead Tricrngle s/Jcrpedtoolh
"~
Tooth _ ;'-Solt
damp -
°r-Nvl
1 Ji,. lock_
, washer ~
Wedge",
FIG. lM.-Types of clamps for FIG. 165.- Part of a section of a spike-

diamond- and triangular-shaped teeth tooth harrow sliowing guard rails and
on spike-tooth harrows. shock-absorbing spring.
them from hanging on any obstruction, such as stumps, gates, and fences .
When guard rails are used, the harrow is called a closed-end type.
Harrows without guard rails are open-end types.
The teeth may be made in several cWIerent shapes, such as round,
oval, square, triangular, or diamond. The diamond-shaped tooth (Fig.
164) seems to be the most popular, because of the fact that it may be
r eversed and pTesent a new cutting edge when one side of the tooth has
become dull. The sharp corner of the tooth also aids in holding it firmly
against the bar. All teeth should be provided with heads to prevent
losing them if the clamps become loose.
At each corner of the section there is a tooth with a head t hat is long
and curved in su ch a manner that when the teeth are placed fiat, these
teeth will serve as runners (Fig. 163). The points of the teeth during
transportation from one field to another are not dragged over the roads
and worn.
The teeth should have a wide range of adj ustment varying from
a horizontal to a verti cal position. Any angle desired can be had by means
of levers provided for the purpose.
124 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUI PMENT
208. Rigid and Flexible Harrows.-Spike-tooth harrows are made

either rigid or flexible. They are rigid when the steel bars have a brace
across them at right angles to the teeth bars, as shown in F ig. 163. T here
is no means of adjustment other than that of adjusting the angre of the
FIG. 166.- Flexible spike-tooth harrow.
teeth. A flexible harrow (Fjg. 166) may be rolled up as the links between
each tooth bar are hinged. This also allows the harrow to adjust itself to
uneven ground much better. . Such harrows are provided with draft
hooks on both sides. The angle of the teeth cannot be changed.
FIG. 167.-Spring-tooth harrow.
209. Riding Attachments.-A special attachment called a harro...w cart,

shown in Fig. 163, can be secured to fit any spike-tooth harrow. H arrow
carts consist of two wheels, axle, and seat, which is connected to the
evener in front of the sections by long bars. If the harrow cart is not
use~, the operator may ride by standing on a board placed ac~oss tWi
sectIOns.
210. Horse-drawn Spring-tooth Harrow.-The spring-tooth harrow,

as shown in Fig. 167, is made up somewhat on the same gel(eral plan as
t hat of t,he spike-tooth harrow. Spring-tooth harrows are adapted for use
in rough and stony ground. The teeth will penetrate deeper than those on
FIG. 168.-Six-section tractor spring-tooth harrow.
pike-tooth harrows, and they will give when obstructions are struck. It
is frequently advertised as a quack-grass and Bermuda-grass eradicator
ince the teeth penetr::j,te deeply, tear out, and bring the roots to the
surface. Alfalfa sod is also cultivated with spring-tooth harrows. The
teeth in the spring-tooth barrow consist of wide, fiat, curved, oil-tempered
FIG. 169.-Spring-tooth harrow drawn by general purpose tractor.
bars of spring steel, one end of which is fastened rigidly to a bar ; the other
end is pointed t o give good penetration (Fig. 170) . The depth to which
the t eeth will penetrate the soil is controlled by adlusting the angle of the
teeth by means of levers as in the case of the spike-tooth barrow. This
is also supplemented by the weight of the harrow. Wheels or runners are
provided as a means for transportation.
Figure 168 shows a six-section tractor-drawn spring-toothed harrow

equipped with tractor hitch .
211. Special Harrow Teeth.-Some spring-tooth harrows are made
with teeth having detachable points (Fig. 170). Points of various widths
can be obtained according to the purpose and type of work to be done.
For harrowing recently b r 0 ken
ground, the wide tooth is better.
Since this harrow makes a splendid
cultivator for alfalfa, the narrow,
sharp point is the best to use
for cultivating this crop. The
narrow point will penetrate deeply
into the soil slipping around the
FIG. 170.-Types of teeth used on crowns of the roots and not cut-
spring-tooth harrows: A, regular; B, quack ting them off as would the wide
grass; C, alfalfa, D, detachable point.
pcint.
212. Special Orchard Harrows.-In the last few years a special type
of spring-tooth harrow (Fig. 171) has been introduced, which is adaptable
principally for use with tractors. Such machines have proved valuable
in the preparation of seed beds, stubble land, summ er fallowing, and for
destroying thistles. They have become quite popular in the Northwest.
This tool is designed in independent sections which are under spring
Fro. 171 .-Svring-tooth orchard harrow.
tension, lever controlled, making it possible to regulate uniformly the

depth of penetration in the soil. Each section is equipped with heavy
tempered, spring-steel teeth, which have a high throat for clearing heavy
trash. It is made of heavy material throughout.
Figure 172 shows a rigid-tooth type of orchard harrow; the main
frame is made of heavy angle steel wen braced. The harrow is. carried
on wide-tired steel wheels. This type of harrow i~ adaptable for-use in
extremely hard soils, for subsoiling, and in the preparation of seed beels.
213. The Acme Harrows. -This type of harrow is sometimes called

a knife harrow, since the cutting blades consist of large knives. These
knives may be either straight or curved. The acme harrow consists
of' a series of knives attached securely to a frame. The straight knives
are so called because the cutting edge is straight, giving a slicing action.
FIG. 172.- 0rchard harrow equipped with power lift.
The curved knife (Fig. 173) is given a couple of curves and has a tendency
to turn the soil more than once. It makes an excellent clod crusher, and
a good soil mulch. It is also good for orchards and sod land, which have '
recently been plowed. It is very effective in leveling the soil. The har-
row is constructed in sizes suitable for one or four horses and for tractors.
Provision is made for the operator to ride. Some of the smaller types,
however, do not have riding facilities. The weight of the harrow may be
FIG. l73.-Acme harrow equipped with cart and three sections of curved knives.
'upported by the knives or the front part of the harrow may be supported
by a truck.
214. Disk Harrows.--Next to the plow, the disk harrow is the most
"aluable tool employed on the farm to prepare the seed bed.
The many uses of the disk harrow are enumerated as follows:
l. It is used before plowing to cut up vegetable matter that may be on the surface,
such as cornstalks, cotton stalks, and weeds, and pulverize the top of the soil to such
an ell.'tent that the furrow slices will make better connection with the bottom of the
furrow soles, preventing air spaces when slices are turned.
2. It is used after plowing to pulverize the soil and put it in better tilth for the
reception of the seed. Oftentimes land plowed in the fall will need disking in the
spring. This will save replowing and put the soil in the best possible condition for
spring seeding.
3. It puts all plowed ground in condition for spring planting.
4. It is used for the cultivation of crops.
5. It is used for summer fallowing.
6. When seed are sown broadcast, it is used to cover them.
FIG. 174.-Horse-drawn single-action disk harrow.
There are many different types of disk harrows designed to suit

different conditions but they all may be divided into two classes: single
and double action.
215. Single-action Disk Harrows.-Single-action disk harrows consist
of two gangs placed opposite each other, both gangs bei~g set to throw the
soil in the opposite direction from the other (Fig. 174).
FIG. 175.-Each alternate disk has been heat treated. Note the smooth edges of the
treated disk .
216. Disks.-Round smooth-edged heat-treated disks are ,used

on all standard disk harrows. A few special harrows are equipped
with either cutaway or spading disks. Disk blades for harrows range
from 14 to 22 inches in diameter. The 16- to 20-inch sizes are popular
for horse-drawn harrows, and the 18- to 22-inch sizes are COIDlOon on
tractor harrows.
Disks for harrows are made of high-grade steel and are heat treated.
The hard heat-treat ed disks do not crimp up (Fig. 175) and do not require
frequent sharpening.
217. Disk Gangs.-Disk gangs consist of a number of disks spaced
about 6 inches apart on a gang bolt or arbor bolt_yvhich holds all the disks
rigidly together (Fig. 174). The number of disks on a gang may vary
anywhere from three to ten. The disks are held an equal distance apart
by a spool (Fig. 176) . The gang bolt is a square bolt and makes all the
disks turn together as a unit. These bolts have ~ head on one end and
a nut on the other. The nut should have some means of locking it on
so that it will not turn off and be lost. If the disks become loose, they
will wobble and poor work will be the result.
FIG. 176.-Bearing assembly for disk harrow.
218. The Harrow Frame.-The frame of disk harrows is made

strong by the use of angle steel. It is well braced and absolutely rigid.
Rigidity is necessary in order that a certain amount of the end thrust
can be taken care of in the frame. The majority of harrows have the
frame placed overhead the disk. Some few place the frame to the front,
however, lowering it to the level of the center of the disk. The former
method is better because of the extra amount of clearance. The frame
is attached to the gang by means of the standard (Fig. 176) which ext ends
from the frame downward to the bearing on the gang bolt.
219. Bearings.-There may be two to three bearings on each indi-
vidual gang. These bearings consist of a specially designed spool around
which is bolted a malleable-iron casting which provides a place to attach
the standard, also a place for attaching the frame and for angling the
gang (Fig. 176). In between the malleable-iron casting and the spool
is placed a bushing made of wood or chilled iron (Fig. 176). The wood
bushing has been hardened by boiling in oil. It is used as a bearing
because of the large amounts of dust and grit that come in contact with
it in spite of the efforts of the manufacturers to make this bearing dust
proof. I t is surprising how well these wooden bearings will last. When
worn, they can be replaced with only a few cents cost. Some of the
large tractor-drawn double harrows, and one or two single harrows, have
chilled-iron bearings, eliminating the wooden bushing (Fig. 177).
220. Lubrication.-Harrow bearings are lubricated by means of grease
cups and pressure fittings . The cups or fittings are placed on the ends of
,._ pipes which may extend up above the frame. Some
harrows have the grease cups screwed directly into the
bearings, thus eliminating the pipe altogether. Most
harrows are lubricated by having holes in the top of the
bearing cap into which the pipe, cup, or pressure fitting
is screwed, and through which grease is forced into the
bearings. The construction of the disk harrow throws
the weight of the frame upon the top of the bearing
tending to close the outlet of the grease tube, thus
making it very difficult to force the grease into the
bearings. One or two manufacturers have made a
decided step forward in the lubrication of harrow
FIG. 177.-
Chill ed-iron bear- bearings. The grease cup is screwed directly into the
ing for djsk har- bearing and the grease is forced through a hollow' part
row equipped with
pressure oil fitting. of the bearing to the bottom side where it can enter
freely between the bearing cap and the spool.
221. Bumpers.-When operating, disk harrows have the gangs set at
an angle, which causes a decided pressure to the center. All this cannot
be taken care of by the bearings. Bumpers are placed on the inner ends of
t he gangs which are allowed to come in contact with each other or bump
t ogether. The bumper is a large cast-iron casting placed on the outside
of the last disk to take care of the wear which ",'ill result when the gangs
bump together.
222. Scrapers.-Scrapers (Fig. 174) are placed on the disk harrow
. to clean t he disks and may be of two type. : stationary and oscillating.
If stat ionary, they are bolted r igidly and can be adjusted only a very slight
amount by means of slotted holes. The oscillating type is held against
the disk by springs. Extending out to the front is a foot lever which is
attached to the scraper bolt. A downward pressure on the lever will
move the scraper from the center of the disk out to the edge, thus cleaning
the whole disk as it revolves.
223. Weight Boxes.-Weight boxes or pans (Fig. 178) are plovided
on disk harrows so that additional weight can be placed on the harrow,
if penetration cannot be secured otherwise. These boxes may consist
of a solid pan, or a skeleton-like box. Ordinarily, the weight pans are
STALK CUTTERS, HARRUWS, LAND ROLLERS, AND DRAGS 131
placed on the frame directly above the gangs. They provide a means
for placing stones or sacks of earth on the harrow, adding weight to
force it deeper into the soil. A special weight attachment is shown in
Fig. 179.
FIG. 178.-Single-disk harrow equipped with weight pans, transport trucks, and center-
tooth attachment.
224. Center-depth Regulator.-When the gangs in single-disk harrows

are set to throw the soil from the center, there is always a tendency for
the center end to penetrate a less depth than the outer end. By means
of a depth regulator additional pressure can be brought to bear on the
inner end of the gang, forcing that end deeper into the soil and giving
FIG. 179.-Weight attachment for disk harrow.
uniform penetration to the entire width of the harrow. This may be

done by means of springs or extra brackets called snubbing blocks, all
of which act on the lever bars, transmitting the force to the gang as
shown in Fig. 180. If springs are used, an extra lever with a yoke,
when the lever is brought backward, presses down on the springs
forcing the inner end of the disk gang downward. The snubbing block
132 FAR¥ MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
is bolted to the frame and adjusted vertically by means of elongated

bolt holes. By setting the block lower down, additional pressure can
be brought to bear on the inner end of the gang.
The rear gangs of double harrows have the reverse action. The
outer end kicks up while the inner end digs in. Provision is made
on double harrows to hold the inner end up, making uniform penetration.
225. Angling the Gangs.-The gang must be angled to make it
penetrate the soil. Ordinarily, when set straight, the gang bolts are
at right angles with the tongue. When set in this manner, the disk wiil
not enter the soil. Therefore, penetration is brought about by giving
the gang a greater angle. Attached to the bearings extending' forward
FIG. 180.-Center-depth r egulator.
to the lever is the lever bar, there being one for each gang. By working
the lever backward and forward a greater or lesser degree of angle is
given to the gang. The best penetration is obtained at an angle of
approximately 20 degrees.
226. Forecarriage.-Disk harrows are constructed with or without
tongues attached. If with a tongue, a large part of the weight of.. the
operator and the frame is carried upon the necks of the horses. If a
forecarriage as shown in Fig. 174 is placed under the frame , then, there is
no weight to be carried on the horses' necks. The principal advantages
of the tongue are that better control is maintained over the harrow and
shorter turns can be "m ade, but these features are greatly outweighed
by the advantages of the forecarriage which takes the weight off the
horses' necks; whipping of the tongue is eliminated; and the horses
are allowed to turn the harrow with the traces rather than with their
necks.
227. Methods of Transportation.-When it is desired to move the

harrow any distance, the common method of transporting is to straighten
the gangs so that there will be no angle or tendency for the disk to
FIO. 181.-Disk barrow for orchllrds.
penetrate the soil. If there are any rocks, gra.vel, or obstructions of

any kind, the sharp edges of the disks will be greatly injured and battered
up. A better method of transporting the harrow is by the use of trans-
III~
=-
FIG. 182.-Reversible-disk barrow showing method of changing from outthrow to inthrow,
or vice versa.
port trucks, as shown in Fig. 178. These trucks are placed under t he
gangs, elevating them off the ground so that no damage will be done
to the disks. There should be
one truck for each gang. These t rucks
CRn be secured with single or aouble wheels.
134 FARM MACHINERY ANlJ EQUIPMENT
228. The Orchard Disk Harrow.- The orchard disk harro w, as slwwn
ill Fig. 181, differs from the regular single-disk harrows by havIng a wjde
frame so that the gangs can be set at varying distances apart. It is often
desirable to cultivate under low-hanging branches. If the team or tractor
.is driven too close to the trees, fruit may be injured. With an extension
frame the gangs can be set far enough to the side so that they will extend
under the branches, cultivating the soil without injuring the fruit.
Shields can be purchased to cover the disk and prevent the sharp edges
from doing any damage.
229. Reversible-disk Harrows.-The reversible-disk harrow, as shown
in Fig. 182, is a single-disk harrow with the gangs constructed in such a
manner that they can be reversed to throw the soil either in or out. They
FIG. 183.-Double disk for horses.
are also adjustable for cultivating on ridges. Either end of the gang can
be raised or lowered to suit the topography of the soil.
230. The Double-action Disk Harrow.-The double-disk barrow, as
shown in Fig. 183, is often called a tandem harrow. Two single-disk _
harrows are attached together, one behind the other. It is from this
arrangement that the name tandem or double is given. The front gangs
throw the soil outward. This, of course, if not foHowed by other disks
to throw the soil inward, will leave the soil unlevel. If only the front
gangs are u. ed, half of the harrow must be lapped on the next round to
accomplish the same result. By the use of the double harrow twice ltS
much is accomplished as when the single harrow is used. The rear disks
should split the space left by the disks in front. Very few harrows can be
made to accomplish this.
231. Double-action Disks for Horses.-Originally, the double disk
was brought out for use behind horses but it was not long before they were
being made for use with tractors. The horse disk is usually constructed
lighter than that used with tractors (Fig. 183). The front gangs are also
STALK GUTTERS, HARROWS, LAND ROLLERS, AND DRAGS 135
supplied with fore carriages, seats, and levers convenient for the operator
who rides upon the harrow.
232. The Tra~tor Harrow.- Tractor disk harrows, as shown in
F igs. 184 to 186, differ from the horse harrows in mallY respects. First,
they are heavier. Second, the forecarriage is eliminated, the frame being
SCRAPER CONTROL ~GANG CONTROL SCRAPER CONTROL
LEVERS TELESCOPING LEVERS
CONTROL ROPES DRAWllAl!.
f STEEL GANG
;r--~:=;;;.;;;;;t2<~·::rb~ FRAME SUPPORTS
/
attached directly to the top of the drawbar. Third, the levers are
arranged differently or eliminated entirely. Fourt h, the seat is eliminated
because the operator rides the tractor. Fifth, many harrows are provided
with power-angling devices. Sixth, it is not necessary in turning at the
end to stop and straighten the disk gangs. And seventh, more rigidity
FIG. 185.- Double-action disk harrow drawn by general purpose tractor. Note how gangs
are angled for penetration.
in t he construction of the harrow can be employed. Single- and double-

action tractor disk harrows are provided with extensions of sufficient
lengt h that a strip 21 feet wide may be harrowed. The extensions can be
folded over on top of the regular gangs to give extra weight and to permit
passage through gates (Fig. 186) . The various parts of the gang are
constructed in the same manner as that described under t he single disk,
the only difference being that they are made heavier to withstand the
harder use of tractor disking. The two rear gangs are always locked
together, preventing them from moving more than a measured distance
apart.
~FOLDING GANGS
ADJUSTAllLE
LEVELIl'(G SPRING
._ WEIGHT "BOllS
HEAT.TREATED STEEL liISK
TELESCOPING
DRA~AR SCRAPERS
FIG. 186.-Tractor disk harrow, showing extension gangs in folded position.
233. Offset-disk Harrow.-The offset-disk harrow (Fig. 187) is
adapted for use in orchards and vineyards, as it can be set to run to the
side of the tractor and thus cultivate
under branches too low for the tractor to
pass under. There are no levers to catch
on low limbs. It will work on uneven
ground and swing around corners either
to the right or left. Large disks 18 to 22
inches in diameter are used on this type
of harrow . to cut up and turn under
heavy trash.
234. Power-angling Devices.- The
use of disk harrows behind tractors
created a demand for a method of
angling the gangs without the oper~~or
having to get off the tractor seat and go
back to the harrow to change the angle.
Several different methods of angling by
the tractor power have been developed.
Some of these devices operate in a
manner similar to the power-lifting
devices used on tractor plows (C, Fig.
188) . That is, by pulling a rope, a
clutch, which is adjustable for . various
FIG. 187.-0ffset-disk harrow. angles, is engaged and as the harrow
is pulled forward, the clutch is revolved so that the angle of the
gangs is changed. Power for operating the clutch is transmitted
by a chain running over a sprocket on the gang bolt of one of the
front gangs. The whole apparatus is enclosed in a dust-proof case.
,
Other devices consist of a sliding-bar hitch and an arrangement of levers.

(A and B, Fig. 188). To angle the harrow, the draft lock is raised and,
as the tractor moves forward, the gangs take the desired angle. To
straighten the gangs for transportation the tractor is moved backward.
B C
FIG. 188.-Power-angling devices for tractor double-action disk harrows.
235. Soil Penetration of Disk Harrows.- There are many factors

within the harrow itself that will influence the depth to which it will
penetrate the soil. They are enumerated as follows:
1. The angle of t he disk gang.
2. The weight of the harrow.
3. The sharpness of the disks on the gangs.
4. Size of the disks.
5. The dish of the disks.
6. The angle of t he hitch.
7. The form of the circumference of th e disks whether full , cutaway, or spading.
All of these factors are incorporated within the harrow itself. There
are other factors, however, that will influence the depth of penetration
with which the harrow has nothing to do , such as the condition of the soil,
the amount of moisture,"u plowed land or unplowed land, the amount of I
trash on the soil, and the amount of organic matter that may be in the soil.
236. Draft of Disk Harrows.-No definite data can be given on the
draft of the disk h·arrow because there are a number of factors which will
influence the draft; many of them are the same as those which will influ-
ence the depth of penetration. Naturally, t he angle of the disk gang will
cause the disk harrow to go deeper into the soil, resulting in a heavier
draft. Tests made by Collins! gave the following resulM:
1 Agr. E ng. Jour., Vol. II, p. 91, 1921.
138 FARM MACHINERY AND EI,.jU IPMENT
TABLE VIII.-DRAE'I' OF DISK HARROW IN POUNDS
Sod Plowed sod Corn stubble Cornstalks
Full disk .... .. .. . 1 470 610 450 400

S utaway ... . ..... 550 680 510 480
TABLE IX.-AcRES DISKED WITH HORSES PER 10-HOUR DAY
Location and item

I
Crew l Iacres I
Rate, Location and Hem
I
Crew' I
Rate,
acres
Central Ill inois: Minnesota:

Well-packed land: Rioe County (wheat) .... . . 1-3 1S.5
7-foot single d isc .. . .. . .... 1-4 15.1 Lyon County (wheat) ...... 1-4 15.9
8-foot single disc .... .. .... 1-4 17.1 Norman County (wheat). 1-4 IS.5
9-foot single disc . ........ 1-4 18 . 6 Rice County (flax) ......... • . 1-3.4 7.1
10-foot single disc ... .. . .. 1-6 23.1 }r,0n County (flax) . . . . ... .... 1~3.7 7.7
Freshly plowed: orman County (flax) .... . . . . 1-4 16.4
7-foot s!ngle disc . .. ... ... • 1-4 14.1 Missouri:
8-foot single disc .. . . .. . ... 1-4 15 . 2 Saline County ............ 1-4 10.0
9-foot single disc .... .. 1-4 16.6 Jasper County .... . ....... 1-4 8.6
10-foot single disc . ..... . . 1-6 22.3 St. Charl es .. ............. 1-3 . 6 7.4
C<>\OTado: Montana:
Rocky Ford district ........ 1-3 .6 9.1 Gallatin district (wheat) ...... 1-4.3 18.2
Fort Morgan district. 1-3 . 8 11. 4 Judith dis trict (wh eat) . ... .. .. 1-4 . 5 20.4
Greely di ~ trict .... 1-3 . 8 7.4 Billings district, 12 to 16 d iscs 1-4 10.8
I n or chards . .... .. . 1-2 5 .3 Nebraska :
Corn Belt: Pbelps County (whent) .... . .. 1-4 5 12.5
W ell-packed soil : Saline County (wheat) . . ...... 1-4 10.0
6-£oot. ... . . . ..... . ... 1-2 7.8 I(eith County (wheat) ........ 1-4 2 9.1
6-foot. 1-3 9.4 Western New York:
8-foot .. ......... . . . .. . .. 1-4 15 . 9 Well-packed land:
8-foot . . .. ... . . . . .. .. 1-5 13.9 5-foot ......... . ... ...• .. . . 1-2 8 .7
8-foot .......... 1-6 IS.(I (I-loot .... 1-2 9.4
Freshly plowed- 7-foot . .... : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1-2 .0
}
6-foot ......... 1-2 7.5 8-foot . .. ..... • .... • . ... . . . 1- 2 10.4
6-foot. " ......... .. . . . . .. 1-3 7.8 5-foot .... . . . . . .... . . . . . ... 1-3 9.8
8-foot . " .... . .. .. . .. .... 1-4 13.3 6-foot ........ . .... . .. 1- 3 10 . 2
8-foot . ........ 1-5 11.7 7-foot ............•. 1-3 10 . 3
8-foot .. . . .. . .. 1-6 15.9 8-foot . .... . ..• .. 1-3 10.7
Dakotas: 6-foot .. . ...... . ... . ....... 1-4 9.5
Grand Forks County. 1-4 13.0 7-foot .......... ... . . . ... . . 1-4 12 . 7
Morton County ..... .. .. 1-4 9.3 8-foot . ..... . . .. 1-4 13 . 8
Spink County . . . . ... . ... 1-4.8 13.7 Freshly plowed:
Great Plains . . . . ........ 1-4 8.0 5-foot ... ' ... . . .. . . .. .. . 1-2 7.4
Ilaho: 6-Ioot .. . " . . ..... . . . ... . . . 1- 2 7.8
Idaho Falls and Blackfoot 7-foot .. . . 1-2 8.1
district ............... 1-3.7 6.9 8-foot . . 1-2 8.1
Tdaho Falls district . . . . .... 1-3.88 6.5 5-foot ... 1--;-3 8.4
Twin Falls djgtri ct . .. . ... 1-3 0.2 6-foot .. . .... . .. . . . . .. . . . . . 1- 3 8.5
Provo district . .... . ....... 1-3.25 9 . 3 7-foot .. . . . . ... . . . . .... 1-3 8.4
Garland district .. ..... .. . ... 1-3.93 14.1 8-foot ...... 1-3 '9 . 1
I_)ayette distri ct, in orchards, 6-foot ....... : . • ... . . . . ... . 1-4 7 .9
7-Ioot riding ............ 1-2 5.6 7-foot ...... . • . . . . . . . .. . . .. 1-4 10.2
Kansas: 8-foot . ...... 1-4 11.5
Ford County 1-5.2 9.3 Ohio:
Pawnee County .... 1-4 . 8 11.0 6-foot .... . ........ . .. . .. .. . . 1-3.1 9.7
McPherson County. 1-4.4 10 . 0 P ennsylvania-Ch ester County:
Lou,isiana: B-Ioot single . . .... ...... . 1-2 9.1
6 to 8 foot .... .. .. " ....... 1-2 5.4 8-foot double .. .... . .... 1-4 9.5
6 to B foot ......... . ... . .. 1-4 11 . 6 Utah ..... ... . . . .... . . . . . . . 1-4 8.6
Maine: Washington:
Aroostook County .. '. ... . .. . . 1-2 7.6 In orchards, 5-foot . . . ...... . . 1-2 4.4
Michigan: Wisconsi n ... .. .. .. .. . .... .. .
{ 1-2
o. 12 . 5
Caro County, 6-foot ......... 1-2.5 8.2 1-3 13 .2
Alma Count!., 6 foot . . ..... . 1-2.6 8.0
Grand Rapi s County, 6 foo t 1-3.5 7.4
Grand Traverse County . ... .. 1-3 6.3
Montcalm County .... . . ... 1-3 7.6
1 Fir.t figure refers to number of men and second figure to number of hor... in crew.
U . S. Dept. A",.. Yearbook, p. 1050, 1922.
STALK _CUTTERS, HARROWS, L AND ROLLERS, AND DRAGS 139
Both the harrows were R-foot sizes and just alike with the exception
that one was equipped with 16-inch round disk blades and the other with
16-inch cutaway blades with six points each. The draft of cutaway disks
is on an average about 15 per cent heavier than t he draft of full-blade
disks.
WEEDER-MULCHERS
Weeders are excellent tools for making a mulch, for breaking the soil
crust over germinating seeds, and for controlling and destroying young
weeds just after the field-crop plants have begun to grow. Figure 189
shows a weeder-mulcher.
_ . __11___ _
FIG. 189.-Weeder-mulcher .
LAND ROLLERS
237. Kinds and Types of Land Rollers.-Land rollers or clod crushers

are tools used for the further preparation of the seed bed. They may be
divided -into two classes according to the kind of work t hey do : the surface
packer and the subsurface packer.
There are several different kinds of commercial surface packers, named
according to the shape of the roller surface : (1) cast-iron drum roller
(2) tube roller, (3) V-shaped or culti-packer.
The subsurface packers consist of: (1) a V-shaped packer and (2) the
crowfoot roller.
The surface roller is coming into more general use each year s ince it
has a varied number of uses. (1) The most important is a clod crusher;
at this it has no equal. (2) Another very important use is to finish pre-
aring the seed bed by thoroughly pulverizing and firming the loose soil
together so that there will not be any large air spaces or pockets. (3) It
presses the upper soil down against the subsoil, making a continuous seed
bed in which moisture is conserved and given to the roots of the plants as
140 FARM MAcilINERY AND EQUIPMENT
it is needed. (4) When meadow, wheat land, and pasture land have
heaved badly from freezing, the land roller is good to press the soil back
down around the roots.
238. Cast-iron Drum Rollers.-The cast-iron rollers, as shown in
Fig. 190, are large cylinders made in one large piece or in two or three
FIG. 190.-Cast-iron drum roller.
sections held together by a long axle passed through the center. T~is
axle will extend out beyond the ends a short distance, allowing the placing
of the frame overhead. Midway between each end of the frame is placed
a pole upon which the eveners and a seat are fastened, allowing a t~am to
be hitched to the roller to furnish the power and the operator to ride and
FIG. 191.-Tube land roller.
drive the team. This type of roller, having a smooth surface, will
naturally leave the soil very smooth, which is not the best condition for
the conservation of moisture. This should be followed by a spike-tooth
harrow. "
239. The Tube Roller.-A tube rolier, as shown in Fig. 191, is built
on the same general plan as that of the drum roller but, instead of having
a smooth surface, it is made up of a number of short sections on an axle.
V
Each of these sections is constructed with cast-iron heads in which are
tightly set and bolted U-shaped steel cross-pieces. This type of roller
crushes the clods, pulverizing the top of the soil, also packing it around
Fro. 192.-Culti-packer can be used with either horses Or tractors.
the seed. It does not leave a smooth surface as does the drum type of
roller.
240. The Culti-packer.-The machine, shown in Fig. 192, is a roller
crusher constructed of a number of wheel sections, so that when they are
FIG. 193.-Culti-packer land roller in use behind a 21-foot disk harrow.
strung on a shaft the surfaces of the rollers form a kind of corrugation.

It is from the shape of the surface which it leaves that it gets the name of
corrugated roller. Each wheel or section is made about 5 or 6 incheR
thick and varies in diameter from 10 to 18 inches. The roller is hollow
and may consist of one or two pieces and is cast out of semi-steel. When
placed upon a shaft and rolled across the soil, it leaves small ridges. If
only one set of rollers is used, these ridges will be rather large, being 5 or
6 inches from one crown to the other. The common method, however,
is to use a rear set of rollers which is so arranged that the rear rollers will
split the ridge made by the front pair, leaving a number of very fine
ridges. It is claimed that this type of roller will prevent wind blowing
to a certain extent. It also rolls, pulverizes, packs, levels, cultivates, and
mulches the soil in one operation.
241. Homemade Rollers.-Many farmers do not care to go to the
expense of buying a commercial type of land roller and will make one
to serve the purpose from material that can be had on the farm. The
principal types of homemade land rollers are the log roller, mower-wheel,
and concrete rollers.
FIG. 194.-Subsurface pulverizer and packer.
242. Log Roller.-The log roller is a common homemade type found

on the farm. It consists of a round smooth log with two spikes placed
in the ends and a frame built to provide a means of attaching the tongue
and eveners. Log rollers should not be very long because when turning, .
if a wide circle is not made, one end will remain stationary while the other
is pulled around. Turning in this manner wili have a tendency to dig
holes with one end of the roller. It is better, therefore, to use short
sections and hinge them together with a knuckle joint of some kind.
Such an arrangement will allow easier turning.
243. Mower-wheel Rollers.- In many sections of the country
especially in the haying sections, many mowers are worn out and thrown
aside. Good land rollers can be made out of t he wheels of these machines
by stringing them upon a shaft and building a frame, as in the case of
the ordinary homemade log roller. Another arrangement can be had
with mower wheels by boring a number of holes in the rims of the wheels
and bolting 2- by 4-inch wood strips to the rims of two wheels, making
a cylindrical roller.
244. Homemade Concrete Rollers.-Smooth, round, concrete drum
rollers can be made by pouring concrete in a form. This, of course, makes
STALK CUTTERS, HARROWS , LAND ROLLERS, AND DRAGS 143
a very heavy roller, requiring quite a large amount of power for pulling
it. Wooden forms can be easily made to make concrete rollers with
V-shaped surfaces similar to the culti-packer. The rollers are strung on
a shaft in the same manner as the commercial type of culti-packeJ:.
FIG. 195.-Subsurface packer.
245. Subsurface Packer Rollers.-It is often desirable to pack the sub-

surface of the soil. Special tools for doing this are called subsurf ace
packers. One common type resembles clo ely the culti-packer. It
consists of a number of wheels with V-shaped rims struI11!; on an axle
with the frame overhead in the same manner as the culti-packer but,
instead of the rims of the wheels setting close together, there is an interval
TABLE X.--SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT IN ACRE-INCHES TO A DEPTH OF 4 FEET IN
THE SPRING OF THE CROP YEAR AFTER THE FALLOW PERIOD, OF FALLOW PLOWED
ON THREE SPRING DATES, WITH AND WITHOUT SUlISEQUEXT SUBSURFACE
PACKING, ADAMS BRANCH ExPERIMENT STATION, LIND, ' VASHINGTON,
1918-1923, I NCLUSIVE'
Soil moisture in acre-inches

Relative
amount
Con-
Tillage treatment of con-
Avcr- served
1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 served
age moi s-
moisture
ture'
Early spring plowing:

P acked .. . ... . .. . . . . . . . . 4.91 5.72 5.20 6.03 5.93 5.26 5.51 3.43 101
Not packed .... . . . . . . . . . ·1.95 6.22 4.94 5.29 6.01 5.45 5.48 3.40 100
In termediate spring plowing:
Packed ........ .. ... . ... 5.06 5.89 5.33 5.93 5.71 5.31 5.54 3.46 102
Not packed .... .. . . . ' ... 4 .67 5 .91 5.16 5.50 5.86 5.75 5.47 3.39 100
Late spring plowing:
Packed . . . . .. . ........ . . 4.71 6.28 5.26 5.44 5.46 5 .26 5.40 3.32 98
Not packed . . . . . ... ... . . 5.09 6.40 5.06 5.28 5.65 5.22 5.45 3 .37 99
NOTE.-All plo ts were d isked at the early spring date, and plowed as indicated.
The packed plots were packed with a Campbell sltbsurface packer weighted to 30
pounds p er wheeL All were immediately cultivated with a spring-tooth harrow.
Subsequent tillage was given as necessary for weed controL
1 Wa.h. A(lT. Expt. Sla . Bull. 183, 1924 .
• Re8idual moisture to a depth of 4 feet, 2.08 in ches, 4-year average .
of several inches between them (Fig. 194). The rims of these wheels
are also rather narrow. Their being V-shaped will allow them to go
below the surface, pressing the soil together and leaving a good mulch
on top. Another roller which may be classed as a subsurface packer is
shown in Fig. 195. The results of conserving moisture by subsurface
packing is shown in Table X.
Figure 196 shows a Meeker harrow in use behind a disk harrow. The
Meeker harrow consists of a large number of disks uniformly spaced on an
axle and mounted in a frame. A very fine mblch can be made with this
implement.
FIG. 196.-Meeker harrow following disk harrow.
246. Drags.-In the preparation of a good seed bed, excell~nt work

can be done by the use of ordinary drags which will crush clods, level
the land, and firm the soil around the seed. In many cases the dnl.g call
be made to take the place of the roller. There are no commercial types
of drags but any farmer can build an ordinary homemade drag that will
serve his purpose. The most common drag is" that of the· plank which
consists of a n1.lmber of 2 by 8's or 2 by 10's, or any conyenient size of
plank, lapped upon one another and firmly fastened by cross sills. Many
other types of homemade drags can be made, but are too numerous to
mention.
PART V
SEEDING MACHINERY
CHAPTER XVI
CORN PLANTERS
Various methods are used to drop the kernels of corn into the soil,
but the specially designed corn planters are used most for this purpose.
Such planters are : the hand, the one-row, the
two-row drill, and the two- and four-row check- .
row.
247. The Hand Corn Planter.-Very little
needs to be said of this type of planter because
of the small demand for it. However, it does
COme in handy if replanting happens to be neces-
sary. It is constructed with a wedge-like shoe
(Fig. 197) which is easily forced into the soil.
One side of this shoe is hinged and is connected to
the foot-like lever which, when pressed on the
ground as the planter is rocked forward, will open
this shoe, pressing the soil apart to allow the
kernels of corn to drop from the hopper above
through a valve that is opened into the soil.
248. One-row Walking Corn Planter.-The
one-row walking planter is fully described in the
chapter on Cotton Planters. The principal
difference in the walking corn planter and the
walking cotton planter is in the size of the hop-
per and plate equipment.
249. Two-row Check-row Corn Planter.
This type of planter, as shown in Fig. 198, may FIG. 197.-Hand corn
planter.
be used to plant corn in hills or to drill it in
rows. When used as a hill planter, a wire, with buttons on it, makes it
possible to plant the hills at equal distances apart in each direction. The
distance between hills along the row is the same as the distance between
the rows. This arrangement allows cultivation. to be made in two direc-
tions, which aids in the control of weeds and reduces hoeing to a minimum.
145
The only difference between a check-row planter and a drill planter 1':1
that the latter does not have the checking apparatus. There are no
valves in the boot, no checking head or wire.
Variable .
Drop Gear Rmg to DriveP/afe
Gears Wire Dof"'r f
(ofmecled i WireOoffer fa Rele".e
lvfi>otL.""r( _..IWr",.fromCheckingHead
\\
\, '\
Checking
Head
. ChamJdfer
FIG. H)S.-Overhead view of check-row planter with the various parts named.
250. Wheels.-The type of wheel used on check-row planters,may be

either the open-center tire wheel, the c!ospd tire wheel, or :be double
wheel (Fig. 1(9). The open-center tire wheel, as shown in Fig. 198, is the
most popular and can be converted into a closed-tire full-concave wheel by
FIG. 199.-Double wheel on check-row planter.
the addition of steel wheel bands. The open-center tire wheel not only
carries the planter but serves as both a covering device and a press wheel.
Only one wheel furnishes power for operating the dropping devices.
CORN PLANTERS 147
251. The Back Frame.-The frame consists of two units which may be
termed front fraIl!e and back frame. The back frame is made of a
single piece of flat or channel steeL Holes are provided for attaching
the axle and its bearings, the front frame, and other parts (Fig. 200).
Sprockets of different sizes are placed on the axle as one of t he methods
of changing the speed of the feed shaft . A sprocket and clutch for
winding up the check wire are also placed on the axle. If a fertilizer or
special planting attachments are used, they are driven from the main
axle.
252. The Front Frame.-The front frame (Fig. 200) is made of the
same type of steel as used in the back frame. Incorporated in the front
frame are the various parts of the dropping mechanism. The boots
Connection for Fronf

Clnd Back Fram es Connedion for fronfand Back Frames
Gear Ring fa Drive Pia Ie
Ring fa Drive PTafe
Rear Pulleys for Wire
;---,,-,:: ····Check,ng Head
'\
F lO. 200.-Front a nd back fr ames of a check-row planter.
attached to the front frame are sometimes known as shanks, or seed tubes.
These are bolted to the front on each side, and can be spaced from 28 to
48 inches apart. A drop shaft to operate the valves in t he boot and a
feed shaft to drive the plates are mounted on the front frame. On
these shafts are found the clutch, the variable drop, the gears for driving
the plates, and the check forks. On each end of the frame a check head is
mounted to control the check wire.
253. The Feed Shaft.-The feed shaft shown in Fig. 200 is mounted
on top of the front frame and is driven by a chain from the main axle.
The speed of the shaft is changed by using the ditIerent size sprockets aD
the main axle (Fig. 199) . A variable drop mounted on the feed shaft
will also change its speed. When drilling corn, t he distance between
kernels can be varied by changing the speed of the feed shaft. Gears
on each end of the shaft drive the seed plates.
I _~_-
254. The Clutch.-The clutch (Figs. 198 and 200) is mounted on the
feed shaft, to transmit power from the feed-shaft sprocket (Fig. 199) to.
the feed shaft. The sprocket runs loose on the feed shaft but when the
clutch units (Figs. 201 and 202), which are keyed to the feed shaft, are
engaged, the shaft is revolved. When drilling corn, the clutch remains
engaged and keeps the feed shaft turning steadily. When corn' is being
Opera.tive
Position"",
"
FIG, 201.-Clutch on check-row planter in engaged position.
check rowed the clutch is engaged before and disengaged after ealch hill is
planted. The clutch is operated automatically by the buttons on the
wire, which also causes the feed shaft to turn intermittently.
255. Corn Seed Plates.-There are four types of seed plates used for
planting corn, namely, the edge-drop and the flat-drop, which have the
cells around the outer edge of the seed plate; the flat-drop r.ound-hole
- - - Operative positfon
.lnope:rative .......
PG!Jition
FIG. 202.-Clutch on check-row planter in disengaged position.
cells; and the full-hill plate. The edge-drop (Fig. 203) carries the kernel
of corn on edge in the cell of the plate. The flat-drop (Fig. 204) carries
the kernel flat in the cell of the plate. Only one kernel of corn is selected
in each cell at a time. As the plate revolves, the kernels' are dropped
upon the top valve until the desired number of kernels have been accumu-
lated; then, the valve is opened and they are dropped upon th!l lower
CORN PLANTERS 149
valve, and next, into the soi1. Figure 209 shows kernels of corn being
dropped by the valves.
I
Hopper bottom plate
FIG. 203.-Edge-drop plate assembly showing position of kernel.
The full-hill plate (Fig. 205) has cells around the outer edge large
enough to ~dmit several kernels at the same time. Kernels enough for
one complete hill are dropped upon the valve without having to be
accumulated.
/
Full Hil! Drop P/dfe I
, Hopper BoHom Plafe
Fl'G. 205,-Full-hill drop plate with kernels in the cells.
The flat-drop round-hole type of plate (Fig. 206) is not used on check-
row planters but is used on many drill planters .
. .Kernels of corn do not vary greatly in thickness. They do, however,
vary considerably in width. It is essential to carefully
select a plate having cells of sufficient thickness to prevent
cracking of the kernels as they pass under the cut-off cover 0
0OQ
plate. Where the kernels are selected to lie flat in the cell, C 0.
several plates are furnished, having cells adapted to small, FIG. 206.-
Corn plate with
medium, and large kernels. Both the edge-drop and the round hole
flat-drop plates do satisfactory work provided the size of the cells.
cell suits the size of the kernel. In each type the corn should be graded
to a uniform size. This is more important in the edge drop than in the
flat drop.
256. Selecting and Dropping of Seed.-The accuracy of a planter

depends upon the uniformity of kernels, shape of hopper bottom, speed.
of the plate, shape and size of the cells, and fulLness of the hopper.
A crowned hopper bottom (Fig. 207) causes the seed to gravitate into
the cells. Frequently more than one kernel is partially in the cell.
The yielding cut-off pawl (Fig. 207) acting under spring pressure
pushes the extra kernels back as the cell passes under the plate cover
or it cuts them off from the cell and, at the same time, presses the kernel
firmly into the ce~l.
As the plate revolves to where the cell is over the seed tube a yielding
knock-out pawl under spring pressure comes in contact with the kernel,
knocking it through the cell into the seed tube, where it is allowed to fall
either upon the valve, if ch'ecking, or directly into the soil, if drilling.
KNOCH OUT PAWl

LOCATED BENEATH MERE
FIG. 207.-Cross-section of hopper bottom. plate, and cover showing cells and cut-off
pawl.
257. Drive for Seed Plate.-On each end of the feed shaft is a bevel-
gear pinion which meshes with the plate gear and drives the plate by
means of a lug in contact with a lug on the plate (Fig. 208).
258. The Variable Drop.-All check-row planters are provided with
devices to vary the speed of the plate and change the number of kernels
in the hills. One part of the field may be fertile land and four kernels
would be desired while another part may be poor land and two or three
kernels would be sufficient.
The most common method consists of a set of three gear changes
mounted upon the feed shaft. The gears are enclosed in an oil-tight case
and the change in the number of kernels is made by shifting a conveniently
-located foot lever. To plant two kernels, the feed shaft makes only
a half revolution which causes two cells to pass over the valve. When
three kernels are desired, the feed shaft makes three-quarters of a revolu-
tion. To plant four kernels, the feed shaft makes a complete revolution.
Other variable drops may consist of three rows of teeth on the seed-
plate gear. A piI\ion gear shifted to either row of teeth will change the
CORN PLANTERS
151
number of kernels. Another method is to have a pinion with three rows
of teeth on each end of the feed shaft.
Crown-
for Boof
Valve
Lever
Curved Runner
F(Jrrow Opener
Boof Or Shank-
FIG. 208.-Planting assembly for drill and check-row planters.
269. Valves.-lVIost check-row planters have two valves (Fig. 209)

in the boot or shank-a few of them have three. One of these is located
at the top of the boot just under the seed plate, while the other is at
A B C
FIG. 209.-Cross-sectional view of check-row planter boot, shOwing action of the val ves;
A, valves closed with kernels of corn in each; B, valves open shoWing lower valve ejecting
corn into the soil and the corn dropping from the upper valve to be caught by the lower
valve; C, valves locked open for drilling.
the bottom of the boot and in the rear part of the furrow opener. The
two valves open and close at the same time. Kernels of corn aCCUDJU-
lated on the top valve, while closed, are dropped and caught by the
lower valve when the buttons on the wire trip the check fork and open
both valves. Springs close the valves so quickly that the kernels do
not have time to pass from the top valve into the soil before .the lower
valve closes.
FIG. 210.-Method of laying out and reeling up wire.
The lower valve is necessary to prevent the hills being staggered and
the kernels scattered. When drilling is desired, the valves can be locked
open, allowing the seed to drop from the seed plate directly into the
soil.
260. Check Wire.-The check wire is usually furnished in 80-rod
lengths, having buttons anywhere from 30 to 48 inches apart. Special
. wire with shorter spacing can be secured.
At intervals of 5 or 6 rods special
spreading links are provided so that the
wire can be disconnected and passed
around obstructions such as trees.
When the planter is not being used,
the wire is rolled up on a reel which
may be suspended beneath the seat (Fig.
210) or carried to one side of the planter
FIG. 211.~Wire reel attached to side (Fig. 211).
of planter. 261. Operation of Check-row Planter
in Field.-It is often difficult for the student to fully understand the
relation of the various steps in the operation of a check-row planter .
. H ence, they are given here:
1. Laying out and handling wire.

The first step in the field is to layout the wire. Drive the planter to edge of field
and place it in first position shown in Fig. 212. Hook wire on anchor stake; then, set
stake to rear of planter about four times the distance between rows toward the edge
of the field.
CORN PLANTERS 153
Drive carefully straight across the field unreeling the wire. Upon reaching
opposite side of field detach wire and turn planter i'1 second position (Fig. 212) for
planting the first two rows. Hook the other anchor stake to wire drawing wire fairly
tight, and set stake directly behind the center of the planter. Place wire in checking
head.
The required tension on the wire can be determined by using spring balances or
special registers.
For rows 30 rods or less, pull to 30 pounds.
For rows 40 rods, pull to 40 pounds.
For rows 50 rods or more, pull to 50 pounds.
The planter is again driven across the field , this time planting. Upon reaching
opposite side of the field, the wire is released from the checking head by means of the
wire dafter. Turn the planter to third position (Fig. 212), change row marker to
opposite side of planter; move the anchor stake to directly behind center of planter,
drawing wire to same tension as before; then, place wire in checking head and drive
to opposite side and repeat operations there.
rlnt POiltioD.
Lr.Jinr out win (2 and '-JLow Planten).
(J(id
,~ . 1111"
.
••••••••••• . ••••••••• •••••• • • •••••• ••• • • • • • • • •• • •• • . .••••• •
. •• .
~~rlf ThWP~ltl...
'7 :a.t1d7 to plao.\ INOOn4 tim. ~ ftoIld.
_
V
a. • • _ .
1'"" 4-R_ Plan l"" Itt d dt (t "'.ally .,/'_/,., _'. No.1
J(up " ./er oj f ·R_ PIG"" , d"",,, 0'f1rT
FIG. 212.-Steps in the operation of a check·row planter.

"1111'&.
",II, 1Mb I• ••, . , '"ell ..·..,..
2. The wire being stretched across the field is now placed in the checking head,
. through the roller guides and the check fork (Figs. 199 and 200).
3. Lower the row marker towarcl the field.
4. Now the planter is driven across the field with the buttons striking the checking
fork; bending it down.
5. As the buttons bend the check fork down the valves are opened and the clutch
engaged. When the button slips over the bent down check fork , the fork returns to
an upright position, allowing the valves to close and the clutch to disengage.
This action in turn brings about the following operations:
a. Kemels on the lower valves drop into the soil.
b. Kernels on the upper valve drop to the lower valve.
c. The clutch engages which causes the seed plates to turn and accumulate seed on
the upper valve for another hill. This action occurs between the times the buttons
act on the check fork.
In operating check-row planters it may be difficult to align the hills

across the field at right angles to the direction of travel. That is, the hills
may be dropped too close or too far from the button. On most horse-
154 PARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
drawn planters this can be corrected by adjusting the connection under

the pole. If the hills are too close to the button, lower the front fram e;
if too far from the button, raise the front frame. This is true when the
wire has been stretched to the proper tautness. Do not try to correct
the trouble by shortening or lengthening the neck yoke straps, as this will
cause the furrow openers to run shallower or deeper, respectively.
FIG. 213.-Tractor-mounted four-row check-r ow planter. Note the cross-over attachment

for the check wire.
When four-row tractor check-row planters are used, the width of

land planted is twice that planted with a two-row planter. Consequently,
it will be necessary to leave a wider headland, and the wire will have
more "travel." "Wire travel" is caused by the planter's pulling the
FIG. 214.-Automatic check-wire release. FIG. 215.-Stuh-runner furrow opener.
wire tight behind it and pushing the slack ahead of it. With the four-
row planter there is greater wire travel than with the two-row, owing to
the increased "wire crawl," or movement of the wire sidewise, and the
greater angle at the headlands. To offset this trouble a "cross-over"
device should be used on four-row check planters. As sho"\\'n in Fig. 213,
CORN PLANTERS 155
when the cross-over mechanism is used, the tractor is first headed
toward the center of the field and aligned parallel to the direction of
travel, then the stake at the end of the headland is set directly behind
FIG. 216.-Single-disk furrow opener.
the checking head. With this arrangement there is neither wire crawl
nor angle of the wire on approaching the headland.
262. Furrow Openers.-Furrow openers are necessary to open fur-
row-like trenches in the soil to receive the
seed as they are dropped by the dropping
mechanism of the planter. On check-row
planters four types are used.
The curved runner is shown in Fig.
200 ;. the stub runner in Fig. 215; the
single disk in Fig. 216, and the double
'disk in Fig. 217.
The curved-runner type of opener is
used most. The stub runner is suited
to rough and stony ground. The double-
disk opener is used where a wide furrow
is desired.
263. Attachments for Furrow Openers.
Various types of attachments are shown
in Figs. 218 and 219. A furrowing and FIG. 217.-Double-disk furrow
covering attachment is shown in A Fig. opener.
218. The first blades push away the rocks and clods, permitting
A B C
FIG 218.-Attachments for curved-runner furrow opener: A, furrowing and oovering
attachment; B, furrowing attachment; C, gage shoe.
FIG. 219.-Gage-wheel attachment for single-disk furrow openers.
FIG. 220.-Check-row planter equipped with fertilizer-distributor and pea-phmting

attachments.
CORN PLANTERS 157
the rear covering blades to 's crape in a sufficient quantity of earth

to cover the seed.
The furrow attachment B Fig. 218, also provides a shallow furrow
in which to plant the seed.
The gage shoe shown in C Fig. 218, makes it possible to maintain
a uniform depth in loose and mellow soils.
A 'gage-wheel attachment (Fig. 219) is
used in conjunction with the single-disk
furrow opener to regulate the depth of
planting.
264. Row Marker.-Row markers are
essential to keep the rows straight, parallel,
and of equal distance apart. A reversible-
disk type is shown in Fig. 199 while a
double-folding type is shown in Fig. 213.
Double-disk markers are also used.
266. S pe e i a 1 Attachments.-8everal
attachments are available for all types of
planters. A fertilizer-distributing attach-
ment may be mounted on any of the
modern corn planters. Attachments are
shown on a two-row planter in Fig. 220. FIG. 221. - Attachment on
The details of the types of feeds and rate corn planter for placing band of
of distribution are discussed under F erti- fertilizer 00- each side of the
seed.
lizer Machinery. Some of the attachments
on check-row planters, however, are provided with a valve that is
operated by the check fork in unison with the valves of the planting
mechanism. Some farmers often use the regular planting mechanism
to distribute fertilizer. This cannot be done if
the fertilizer is very sticky. When used in this
manner, it should always be thoroughly washed
to prevent injury to the metal parts.
Figure 222 shows a pea or s oybean planting
attachment mounted on the front frame and
driven by gears clamped on the feed shaft.
When this type of planter is sold in the South
and Southwest, plates for the planting of cot-
ton and sorghums are furni shed as regular
FIG. 222.-Pea attachment.
equipment. The hopper is mE d e larger to meet
the requirements of cotton planting.
266. Duty of Planter~. -An average of 7.1 acres caO be planted in a
lO-hour day with the one-row one-horse planter when the rows are 372 feet
apart. With the same width between rows, a two-row two-horse planter
will plant 14.1 acres.! The duty of a two- and four-row.tractor is practi-
cally the same as for a cotton planter.
FIG. 223.-Four-row corn drill drawn by general purpose tractor equipped with rubber tires.
267. Dmft of Corn Planters.-Very little is known about the draft of

a corn planter. However, it is considered a light load for two horses or
rohles.
1(::u. s. Del}t. Agr. Yearbook, p . 1056, 1922.
I
CHAPTER XVII
COTTON PLANTERS
- The modern cotton planter is designed so that cotton, corn, and
sorghum plates are interchangeable in the same hopper. The general
construction features are different from the corn planter. As a general
rule cotton is planted on a ridge. However, in the subhumid areas it is
planted, as other crops are, in the listed furrow.
268. Primitive Types of Cotton Planters.-The first attempts to
improve upon the hand method of planting cotton was to take a co.v
horn, plunge it into a bag of seed, and then scatter them along the furrow.
Other early and ingenious arrangements consisted of a barrel or keg,
making what was known as a barrel planter. A quantity of sand and
gravel was mixed with the cotton seed in the barrel, for the purpose of
FlO. 224.- Dow-Law cotton planter. FIG. 225.-Carolina cotton planter.
preventing the seed from clinging together, so they would fall through
holes that had been bored at intervals around the middle of the barrel.
269. First Improved Cotton Planters.-The first great forward step
in cotton-planting devices was the invention of the Dow-Law planter
(Fig. 224), about 1874. The features of this planter included a trapezoi-
dal wooden hopper mounted on a wooden frame, at the front end of which
was a steel furrow-opener blade and, just to the rear, a drive wheel. In
the center, at the bottom of the hopper, was an adjustable feed gate,
by which the flow of seed could be regulated.
A slight improvement over the Dow-Law planter was the" Carolina
cotton planter," as shown in Fig. 225. The general construction was
practically the same. The principal differences were in the type of
agitator and the method by which it was driven. Instead of a pitman,
.......~- 159
a chain running over sprockets was substituted which gave a rotary

instead of a reciprocating motion to the agitator.
Many of both the Dow-Law and Carolina planters are still being made
and sold by several of the leading implement manufacturers.
270. Modern Types of Cotton Planters.- The .modern cotton plante!
is really a combination type designed to plant seeds of most of t he .field
row crops. Owing to the wide variety of conditions, there ar man)
different types, as shown by the following list:
One-row walking :
Regular cotton and corn.
Lister.
One-row riding :
Regular cotton and corn.
Lister planters.
Two-wheel narrow.
Three-wheel narrow.
Four-wheel wide tread.
T wo-row riding:
R egular cotton and corn.
Corn-drill typ e.
T wo-row listers.
Three-row tractor.
Four-row tractor.
271. One -row Walking Planters. - The r egular one-row walking
pl.a nter is very similar to the r egular corn planter in the arrangement of
FIG. 226.-0ne-row wa.lking cotton a.nd corn planter with drive wheel in the rear of the
/ furrow opener.
the frame, type, and location of wheels, and method of driving the seeding
mechanism. The planter shown in Fig. 226 is equipped with runner
furrow opener, pitman drive, and a large, wide-tired wheel which also
drives the plates, covers the seed, and presses the soil aroun :! them.
The most popular type of one-row walking planter used in the cotton
belt is shown in Fig. 227. The cast-iron wheel with its narrow T- 01
V-shaped tire is placed to the front of the frame. The power for ~rivin~
COTTON PLANTERS 161
the plates is transmitted by a chain or two pitmans. A pitman is con-
nected to cranks on each side of the wheel and seed box. Some planters
use a gear-shaft device instead of the pitman drive. Reversible sh(, v el
furrow opener and covering shovels are used. The planter can be
obtained with or without a hill-drop valve in the boot. Figure 228
shows a one-row walking planter equipped with a runner furrow opener,
with knife coverers, and with press wheel and fertilizer attachment. The
FIG. 227.- Pla nter equipped wit h hill drop. A cha in t ransmits power to drive t he seed
plates a nd hill-drop valve.
press-wheel and fertilizer attachment are optional. The press wheel

serves both as a depth gage and as a press wheel.
272. One-row Riding Cotton Planter. -The most popular one-row
riding type of cotton planter is shown in Fig. 229. It is designed to
plant on the level, on beds, or in furrows . Cotton is planted on ridges or
beds to secure good drainage and anow the top of the bed to become
warm early in the spring, which hastens germination of the seed.
FIG. 228.-Cotton planter equipped with runner furrow opener, knife coverer s, press wheel,
a nd fertilizer attachment.
273. Frame. -I n most one-row riding cotton planters the frame is

one continuous piece of flat or channel steel, well braced to make it
rigid. Axle braces bolt to the frame and carry the axles beneath it.
274. Axle.-The axle is usually a straight piece of cold-rolled steel
shafting about 1% inches in diameter.
A spur or bevel gear for driving the planting mechanism is carried
on t he axle inside of the frame .
If a fertilizer attachment is used, a sprocket is slipped on one end

of the axle next to the frame to furnish t he power.
275. Wheels.- Both wheels furnish power for driving the planting
mechanism. A ratchet and pawl is used in the hub of each wheel.
The wheels have removable boxings. The tread of the wheels may be
varied from 32 to 44 inches to suit different widths between rows. Tires
may be flat, oval, or concave in shape. The flat tire is better for black
and sticky soils while the concave tire is better for sandy soils.
276. Clutch.-On most planters a clutch is placed on the axle in
connection with the driving gear so that the planting mechanism can
be easily engaged and disengaged. Where no clutch is provided, the
Llffinq Lever
I
I
/
Spouf A Sweep Foo!
ShIeld Adjusfa6!e Shovel Seed
Furrow Opener
FIG. 229.- 0ne-row riding cotton a nd corn pla nter.
planting mechanism is thrown in and out of gear by lifting the hopper

so the gears do not mesh. In either case this is done automatically as
the plow and furrow opener are lifted.
277. Cotton-dropping Devices.-Gin-run cotton seed is universally
used for planting. This is seed with lint adhering to it the same as
it comes from the cotton gin. Two types of dropping mecp.anisms are
used on cotton planters. They are the cell drop and the picker-wheel drop.
278. The Cell Drop.- A typical cell drop is shown in Fig. 231. It
consists of a plate with cells on the outer edge. As the plate turns
the agitators separate and stir the seed, causing. them to work down
into the cells off a sloping collar, and under feed springs which gently
force more or less seed into each cell. Then, the yielding cut-off pushes
back the surplus and, as the cells pass over an opening, a yielding spring
cont rolled knock-out partially drops into the cell forcing the seed through
COTTON PLANTERS 163
the plate into the spout below. A small wheel with spur-like fingers
projecting into each cell is also used as a knock-out device.
The manner in which the seed are distributed is shown in Fig. 232.
With average size seed the quantity dropped by the cell drop ranges from
FIG. 230.-Cell-drop cotton-dropping mechanism with hopper removed: A, cell; E, cut-off;

C, agitator arm; D, feed springs.
7S to slightly more than 1 bushel per acre. The quantity is varied by

changing the speed of the plate and by changing plates ..."hich have
different size cells .
. Agifcdor
FlO. 231.-Cell-drop cotton-dropping mechanism showing the various parts.
Many claim that this type of drop injures a large quantity of seed
but, according to tests conducted by the author, the percentage of
injury hardly ever is greater than 1 per cent. l
The cell drop is best suited to loose, loamy, and sandy soils.
1 T ex. Agr. Expt. Sta. BuU. 526, p. 19, 1936.
Special planters, that work fairly satisfactorily, have been designed

to drop cotton seed in hills.
279. The Picker-wheel Drop.-A representative type of the picker-
wheel drop is shown in Fig. 233. It consists of a horizontal rotating
., " . .
~
FIG. 232.- Cotton seed dropped by cell-drop planter.
agItator plate (a) with fins or fingers (b) radiating outwardly from the
body of the plate. The fingers are so designed as to press the cotton
seed downward on the picker wheel (c) revolving in an opposite direction,
and at right angles against the movement of the agitators. This picker
A B
FIG. 233.-Cotton-dropping devices with hoppers removed: A, picker-wheel drop; B, cell
drop.
wheel really picks the seed from the mass forced down on it. The
wheel is usually about % inch wide and has notches, having a sh&rper
slope on the front side than on the rear. It does not extend above the
bottom of the hopper as a general rule.
FIG. 2:34.-CottoD seed dropped by a picker-wheel dropping device.
The quantity of seed is regulated by exposing more or less of the

picker wheel to the seed by means of a sliding gate shutter. The quan-
tity of average size cotton seed planted, can be varied from about J'3
bushel to better than 3 bushels per acre. The manner of depositing the
seed is shown in Fig. 234.
COTTON PLAN1'ERS 165
The picker-wheel drop injures an average of 0.20 of. 1 per cent. This
type of drop is best suited to black heavy crust-forming soils. A large
number of germinating plants are often necessary to break through a
heavy crust formed on the top of the soil.
(
Rotary hill-drop vcr/ve'
/
---'/
Covenng shovels
FIG. 235.-Rotary hill-drop valve on one-row riding cotton planter.
Hill-dropping picker wheels are made by some manufacturers.

280. Hill-drop Mechanisms.-The first hill-drop mechanisms used
consisted of cells spaced at suitable intervals in the planter plate and large
enough to hold sufficient seed for one hill, or picker wheels having notches
A B
FIG. 236.-Hill-drop mechanism for t ractor planter: A , showing pos.ition of hill-drop; B ,
rotary valve for dropping hills.
in their surfaces, so spaced as to drop the seed in hills. These kinds of

hill drops were located in the bottom of the planter hopper, and it was
necessary for the seed for each hill to fall from the hopper through the
seed tube to the soil. In falling a distance of some 18 or 20 inches the seed
became separated and scattered along the furrow to such an extent that it
was difficult to distinguish one hill from another. Later someone con-
ceived the idea of placing a valve in the lower part of the seed boot, low
enough to the ground to prevent the seed from scattering when they were
dropped (Fig. 235). Walking and riding horse-drawn planters and tractor
planters are now available equipped with hill-drop mechanisms. Horse-
drawn planters are equipped with a trip or rotary valve in the boot, while
tractor planters are equipped only with the rotary-valve type of hill
drop (Fig. 236). The trip-valve type will not withstand the strain of the
higher speeds attained by tractors.
- . '.
--
.
-. . -- .
,
FIG. 237. -0n e-row ridin g cotton planter equipped with variable-depth attachment. The
inset shows how the seeds are placed in shallow and deep cycles.
I
281. Variable-depth Attachment.-This is an attachment for planting
seeds :::,t a variable depth below the surface of the soil. The attachments,
sho'wn in Figs. 58 and 237,.consist of a cam or crank to raise and lower the
furrow opener as the planter is drawn along the row. The distance
between the ~hallow and deep cycles is determined by the number of lobes
on the cam or the length of the t hrow of the crank. Where the' seed are
drilled, some seed will be placed 1Yz to 2 inches deep and some only Yz inch
below the surface of the soil. Some seed will also fall on the slopes of the
furrow sole between the deep and shallow cycles. Theoretically some of
the seed should be placed in the soil at the optimum depth for good
germination.
In Alabama, Randolph of the United States D epartment of Agricul-
ture, Bureau of AgricuJtural Engineering, has secured better yields where
cotton was planted at variable depths t han at uniform depths. Tests
GOTTON PLANTERS 167
conducted by the author in Texas for a six-year period failed to show
any significant difference in the two methods.
282. To Change from Cotton to Corn.-All cotton planters are
equipped with hoppers so designed that the seed-dropping mechanism
can be changed from cotton to corn or to sorghum by changing the
equipment in the hopper bottom. Figure 238 shows the parts involved
when changing from cotton to corn or the reverse in one make of planter .
........ .. A
~-- .... - __ - 8
~---~__ --C
I~ •
~ _-D
~---
-="""'_~I:'I~!!It~
~.;. ___ --E
C:>~
, ~
FIG. 238.-Parts involved in changing from cotton to· corn or t h e reverse. Place the
filler ring A in bottom of seed box. Put seed box bottom B on box and replace: C, filler
ring; D, cotton plate ; E, agitator plate, F, washer; G, t humb nut. Lift box bottom F, from
box G and turn over and remove : A, thumb nut; B, washer ; C, cut-off ri ng; D , cor n plate;
E, floor ring.
Other makes are slightly different. There are no valves in the seed
spout or tube; hence, corn is always drilled with this type of planter.
283. Drive for Seed Plate.-The ratchets and pawls in the hubs of
each wheel cause the axle to turn integral with the wheels. The spur
or bevel gear on the axle transmits power to the plate gears which drive
the plate.
284. The VariableDrop.-Most of the cell-drop planters are provided
with a variable drop arrangement to vary the quantity of seed deposited .
Some have several plates that may be changed. A common varia ble
drop for cotton planters is shown in Fig. 239. It consists of a fiat disk
gear with three rows of teeth. A movable-drive-pinion gear, when

changed from one row of teeth to another, changes the speed of the seed
FIG. 239. -Flat-gea r and movable-pinion type of variable drop for cotton and corn planters.
plate. If the outer row of teeth is used, the speed of the plate is increased
and more seed deposited. The inner row gives a slower speed and less
seed.
FIG. 240.-An easily operated type of variable drop for cotton and corn planters.
Another method is shown in Fig. 240. There are three bevel-pinion

gears on the drive shaft and three rows of teeth on the plate gear of
the hopper bottom. Only one of
~ the three pinion gears can be en-
gaged at a time. Anyone of the
three speeds can be obtained by
shifting the lever which engage.s
the pinion gears.
Figure 241 shows a nest of three
FIG. 241.-Spur-gear type of variable drop spur gears, cast integral, that slide
used on a cotton and corn planter.
on axle, allowing the spur gear on
the hopper shaft to mesh with the gear, giving the desired speed.
COTTON PLANTERS 169
285. Furrow Openers.-When planting cotton on beds, a large sweep
is nearly always used in front of t he regular seed furrow opener (Fig. 242) .
FIG. 242.-0ne-row cotton plantar equipped with large sweep to knock off the top of the
ridge.
This sweep is carried on a heavy, strongly built, and braced standard.

The foot where the sweep is attached is adjustable to give the proper
amount of su ction. The sweep is used to shovel off the top of the ridges,
leveling the ground somewhat, to destroy weeds, and provide a ~lean moist
soil for the seed.
or.s,oouf
f Furrow Opener
Middle Breaker or Llsler Boffom
FIG. 243.-0ne-row riding cotton planter with middlebreaker furrow opener.
If planting in the listed or "water furrow," a middlebreaker bottom

is substituted for the sweep (Fig. 243) .
The regular seed furrow opener is carried to the rear of the standard
and almost directly below the axle. In this position the seed tube or
FIG. 244.- Cotton planter equipped with runner opener and fertilizer-distributing
attachment: A, fertilizer hopper; B, seed hopper; C, foot lift for covering shovels; D,
standard; E,,fertiiizer spout; F, runner furrow opener; G, seed spout; H, covering shovels.
seed spout is almost perpendicular. A furrow opener for the seed may
be either a double-pointed, reversible shovel (Fig. 230), or a rUilller-
shoe opener (Fig. 244). Shields are used
with the shovel openers (Fig. 243) to prtvent
the soil falling back into the furrow before the
seed are deposited.
Both the sweep and the subopener are
raised together. When they are raised, the
seeding mechanism is automatically disen-
gaged, either by lifting the seed box off the
drive gears or by disengaging a clutch on the
axle.
286. Covering Shovels.-The covering
shovels are attached to a frame that works in
conjunction with the raising of the standard.
The covering shovels are raised and lowered
FIG. 245.-Covering frame with the furrow opener. The covering
showing spring trip-covering shovels, however, can be raised independently
shovels and press wheel.
by means of a foot lever. Double-pointed
and reversible shovels are attached to shanks that can be adjusted up and
down and tilted forward or back to vary the suction of the shovels. The
COTTON PLANTERS 171
shanks can be set either inside or outside the covering frame, and may be
staggered to allow trash to work th rough. The covering shovels are
equipped with either the spring trip, the pin break, or the friction trip.
FIG . 246.- Two-row cotton and corn planter equipped with tongue truck.
A press-wheel attachment (Fig. 245) can be used behind the covering
shovels if desired.
287. Special Attachments.- A fertilizer attachment can be attached or
removed easily, as shown in Fig. 244. The fertilizer feeding mechanism
FIG. 247.-Two-row cotton and corn-drill planter of the check-row type.

is driven from the main axle by a chain and sprocket. A spout conducts
the fertilizer to the ground just ahead of the seed furrow opener where it is
mixed with the soil.
Special plates for planting kafir, milo maize, peas, and peanuts can
be secured and used on all cotton and corn planters.
Press-wheel attachments, disk coverers, sweeps, and middlebreaker
bottoms are all extra equipment, and can be obtained when desired.
288. Two-row Cotton Planter.-The two-row mule-drawn cotton
planter shown in Fig. 246 is really two units of the one-row planter c(jm-
,
FIG. 248.- A four-row tractor-mounted cotton planter.
bined. One axle serves for both units. The distance between rows can
be adjusted from 32 to 42 inches.
289. Two-row Cotton and Corn-drill Planters.-This type of cotton
planter is built like the check-row planter (Fig. 247). The checking
apparatus consisting of the valves, checking head, drop shaft, and wire is
removed. All other parts of the planter
are essentially the same as the corn drill.
When . care is used in spacing and
building the beds for cotton, this type
of planter can be used to a good
advantage.
290. Tractor-mounted Cotton Plant-
er s. -When the general purpose or row-
crop type of tractor was developed, two-
FIG. 249. -Two-row tractor planter row, three-row, and four-row planters
equipped with runner openers and were designed and mounted on them.
press wheels.
Many different arrangements have been
tried, but the most popular style is shown in Fig. 248. Two-row and
four-row types are available. Sweeps for knocking off the tops of the
ridge are bolted to regular middlebreaker beams. The seed furrow
opener and covering shovels are arranged behind the sweep in the same
manner as they are on the horse-drawn planters. Gage wheels reg-
ulate the depth of the sweep and covering shovels. The large seed
hoppers are mounted high enough above breaker beams to permit the
COTTON PLANTERS 173
sweeps to be raised by means of a power lift. Long flexible seed tubes

conduct tbe seed from the bopper into the boot.
Wbere planting is done in listed furrows, middlebreaker bottoms can
be substituted for tbe sweeps.
Plates for planting corn and sorghum are furnisbed as regular equip-
ment. Fertilizer attachments can be supplied if desired.
FIG. 250.-A four-row tractor planter composed of two two-row horse-drawn planters.
291. Duty of Cotton Planters.-Witb a one-row planter, either walking

or riding, an average of 7 acres can usually be planted in a lO-bour day.
Gabbard and Jones l found that a two-row borse-drawn planter will plant
an average of 14.3 acres while a two-row tractor-drawn planter will plant
23.3 acres in a lO-bour day. A four-row tractor-draWn planter will
plant an average of 35.7 acres in a lO-bour day.
292. Draft.-Tbe one-row riding cotton and corn planter . is usually
drawn by two horses or mules. When listing or planting in heavy soils,
tbree horses are often desirable.
1 Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. B'ull. 362, p. 13, 1927.
CHAPTER XVIII
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF ROW PLANTERS

LISTER PLANTERS
,
The lister planter is especially suited to the subhumid regions. It is
designed to open a furrow, drop, and cover the seed in the bottom of the
furrow in one operation. Dropping mechanisms, suitable to plant most'
of the field-row crops can be obtained for any type. The different tyVes
of lister planters are:
One-row walking.
One-row two-wheel riding.
One-row four-wheel riding,
One-row wide-tread trench guide.
Two-row horse or tractor.
Three-row tractor.
293. One-row Walking Lister Planter.-As shown in Fig. 251, this

planter consists of an ordinary walking middle breaker with a planting
mechanism attached on the rear. When disk coverers are used, the seed
plates are driven by the disks. When shovel covers are used, steel wheels
drive the plates.
FIG. 251.--O.ne-row walking lister planter.
294. One-row Two-wheel Lister Planter.-The one-row two-wheel

lister planter is shown in Fig. 252. The beam, which carries the bottom,
is attached to a bail-shaped axle, which in turn raises and lowers t}Je
bottom. The wheel boxes are in the form of long sleeves and the wheels
can be set in or out for different widths of rows. The seed mechanism is
driven by a chain receiving power from a sprocket on the sleeve of the
wheel. The seat is located in front of the seed box, which makes it difficult
• 174
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF ROW PLANTERS 175
for t he operator to watch the seeding mechanism. Disk coverers are

regular equipment. but shovels can be obtained if desired.
Leverfo
Adjusf
Cover ers
Lisf er
Boffom
FIG. 252.-0ne-row two-wheel lister planter.
295. One-row Four-wheel Lister Planter.-Figure 253 shows how this

planter differs from the two-wheel type. The bottom is carried on a
frame which extends to the rear, being supported by two small wheels.
LifHn!J Levers
FIG. 253.-0ne-row four-wheel lister planter.
The rear wheels lock and hold the planter steady while planting but
release and castor when turning. They also act as press wheels. The
176 FARM ' MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
FIG. 254.-0ne-row wide-tread trench-guide li ster planter.
\
)
FIG. 255.-A wide-tread li ster planter wi t h seed mechanism removed , showing how the
planter is used and controlled. It is shown in position for do.uble listing.
FrG. 256.- Two-row lister planter suitable for either horses or tractors.
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF ROW PLANTF;RS 177
front wheels can be set in or out on long wheel-box sleeves. The seed
mechanism is chain driven by power transmitted from one of the front
wheels. The seat is placed to the rear of the seed box allowing the
operator to watch the planting. Disk or shovel coverers are furnished .
FIG. 257.-Two-row tractor lister planter.
296. One-row Wide-tread Trench-guide Lister Planter.-The main

wheels are set far enough apart to allow the wheelan either side to run in
the bottom of the last row listed and planted. Figure 254 shows the
complete planter, while Fig. 255 shows how it is used and controlled.
r -
FIG. 258.-Three-row tractor lister planter equipped with power lift.
The rows are uniformly spaced and parallel. The main wheels are
doul>le, with the two rims set far enough apart to fit in the bottom of the
trench. Some wide-tread planters have the frame spread wide as in
Fig. 254; while others make the wheel-box sleeves longer. In the former
178 PARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
the seed mechanism is driven by the covering disks, while in the latter itis
driven by a chain fr om one of the wheels.
297. Two-row Lister Planter.-The two-row lister planter, as shoWQ
in Fig. 256, is adaptable to either horses or tractors. The planter is two
units of the four-wheel type combined and equipped with stronger
frame, wheels, imd a power lift.
A number of two-row lister-planter attachments for tractors have
been developed.
298. Three-row Tractor Lister Planter.- Three-row machinery is
relatively a recent development. A three-row lister planter used with a
tractor is shown in Fig. 258.
FIG. 259. -Four-row loose-ground lister planter composed of two two-row horse-drawn
planters.
299. Loose-ground Lister Planter.- When the check-row type <?f

planter is equipped with large double-disk furrow openers, it is con-
sidered as a loose-ground lister planter (Fig. 259).
POTATO PLANTERS
In t he production of potatoes on a commercial scale, it is necessary
to reduce the cost of production as much as possible by the use of machin-
ery. There are a number of successful potato planters on the market
which may be classified as the one-man or picker type and the two-man
or platform type.
300. One-man or Picker Potato Planter.-The dropping mechanism
(Fig. 260) consists of three to six arms ' attached to a vertical revolving
disk; on the ends of the arms are spiketets, forks, or pickers (Fig. 261) that
pick the set out of the hopper. As the pickers move through the hopper,
each picker spears or stabs a seed potato and carries it over to the front
of the machine where the set is punched off by a special ejector into the
seed spout. The distance between hills can be regulated by the number
and speed of the pickers. Stub-runner furrow openers are usually used;
however, single- or double-disk openers can be obtained.
Disk coverers are raised and lowered automatically with the furrow
opener. The planting mechanism is disengaged at the same time.
The advantages of this type are that one man can operate either the
one-row or the two-row machine, thus saving expense and labor.
.FIG. 26D.-Sectional view of dropping mechanism of one-man type potato planter: A,

disk coverer; B, concave; C, concave tension spring; D, concave-spring-adjusting nut;
E, coverer spring; F, agitator spring; G,lifting handle; H, tripper; I, picker; J, furrow opener;
K. magazine; L, canvas-sack hOPl;!er.
The disadvantages are: The pickers may spread disease; they make
5 to 20 per cent misses,! while, on the other hand, they may frequently
take two pieces of potato instead of one.
A B
FIG. 261.-Picker potato-planter dropping mechanism: A, complete picker head; B. pick-
ing hand.
301. Two-man or Platform Type of Potato Planter.-The dropping

mechanism in this type of planter is entirely different from that of the
picker type. It consists of a device to elevate the seed piece from the
hopper to the horizontally revolving platform, having compartments or
1 Mich. Special Bull. 117, 1922.
pockets (Figs. 262 and 263), which carries the piece to the opening over
the seed spout through which it falls into the furrow. The seed piece
is elevated by a chain equipped with cups or a sprocket-like wheel
FIG. 262.-Feeding mechanism of FIG. 263.-The duty of the extra

platform or two-man type of potato man on this potato planter is to pre-
planter. The feed on the inside of the vent misses by filling the empty pock-
hopper is reflected by the mirror. ets on the platform.
(Fig. 262). Should the elevating device fail to place a seed piece in ea.ch
pocket, it is the duty of the extra man to fill the pocket. If two pieces are
placed in one pocket the man can remove. one of them. If properly
handled, this type of planter will make less than 1 per cent of misses.
FIG. 264.-Potato planter with wheel and parts removed to show how fertilizer and potato-
seed pieces are dropped.
Stub-runner furrow openers and disk coverers are used.

302. Fertilizer Attachments.-Fertilizer attachments may be used
with most of the potato planters. The fertilizel' is fed into steel tubes
FIG. 265.-Frame, furrow openers, and coverers for potato planter: A, fertilizer furrow
opener; n , depth adjuster; C, frame; D, lifting lever; E, disk cover ers; F, fertilizer; G, potato
furrow opcner; H, potato piece.
FIG. 266.-1'wo-row potato planter equipped with rubber tires drawn by a rubber-tired
tractor.
l"IG. :l67.-Rear view of fertilizer beet drill.

which convey it to both sides and in front of the furrow opener where it
is deposited in the furrow and on the ridge left by the double disks in
such a manner that, as the furrow opener splits this ridge, the fertilizer
is mixed with the soil. Figures 264 and 265 show the parts performing
these various operations.
FIG. 268.-Disk furrow opener for beet drill. Note the band for regulating depth of
planting.
BEET AND BEAN PLANTERS

Where beets, beans, and other vegetable crops are grown on a com-
mercial scale, special planters are desirable. A four-row planter designed
especially for planting of such crops is shown in Fig. 267. Adjustments
can be made on most planters from 16 to 28 inches at each 2-inch interval.
FIG. 269.-Rear view of six-row t ractor mounted beet and bean planter.
Runner or disk furrow openers with press wheels can be obtained. Fer-
tilizer attachments and row markers can also be furnished.
To plant at a uniform depth it is essential that the ground be smooth
and firm and the furrow openers be set on the same level.
TRANSPLANTING MACHINES
Where large quantities of plants, such as cabbage and sweet potatoes,
are to be transplanted, time and labor can be saved by the use of a
transplanting machine (Fig. 270). These machines have a device to
open a small furrow, a tank for the supply of water, and disks or blades
for closing the soil about the plants. With a transplanting machine
FIG. Z70.-Transplanter with fertilizer attachment.
it is not necessary to wait for a season as the machine automatically

pours a small quantity of water around the roots of each plant as it is
being set. Under favorable conditions with a one-row machine 3 to
4 acres of land can be set to plants per day.
CHAPTER XIX
SEEDING MACHINERY FOR SMALL GRAINS
The most satisfactory method of sowing any of the small grains is
with the grain drill. The largest yields are obtained from fields where
FIG. 271.-Frame for a grain drill.
the seed have been deposited evenly and in the right amount in a firm,
compact soil and covered at a uniform depth. It is practically impossible
to secrue these conditions when the
seed are sown with a broadcast seeder.
GRAIN DRILLS
In general, grain drills may be
classed as horse-drawn and tractor-
drawn drills. Horse-drawn drills are
divided into the regular field drill and
the one-horse drill . . The field drill may
be referred to iI). accordance with the
type of furrow opener and seed box'
used on the drill.
303. Frame.-The frame is usually
made of angle steel, well braced and
reinforced at the corners (Fig. 271) .
It is necessary that the frame be strong
enough to prevent sagging and to hold
FIG. 272.-Bearings for grain drill. parts in alignment, as all parts are con-
nected to the frame. The axle is carried beneath, with the wheels on
each end of it. The seed box is carried above, while the furrow openers
are suspended below. Roller bearings are usually used on each end of
the axle (Fig. 272).
304. Wheels.-The wheels found on grain drills may be made of wood
or steel. Some planters prefer one and some the other. For some parts
184
SEEDING MACHINERY FOR -SMALL GRAINS 185
of the country wooden wheels are preferred but they have the disadvan-
tage of wearing out quickly; on the other hand, they do not slip so
easily on hillsides and do not pick up loose dirt and soil and drop it on
FIG. 273.-Grain drill equipped with rubber tires.
the exposed gears. Most drills sold in the Southwest are equipped with
steel wheels because of the climatic conditions which affect wooden
wheels. Figure 273 shows a grain drill equipped with rubber tires.
In the hubs of the wheels are ratchets and pawls to afford a means
of transmitting the power from the hub of the wheel to the axle and, at
the same time, allow turning where it is neces-
sary that one wheel remain stationary and the
other turn. It is essential that the pawls engage
the ratchet immediately after the grain drill is
moved forward. If the wheels can be revolved
any distance without the pawls engaging imme-
diately, bare strips will be left in the field.
305. Seed Box.- The seed box should be
well braced and built rigid. The end of the
box is shaped somewhat similar to a trapezoid
(Fig. 274). The box tapers from the top, allow-
ing the seed to flow directly into the feed cup.
When the box has a partition running length-
wise through it, the front section for grain and
the rear section for fertilizer, it is termed aferti-
lizer drill. Otherwise, it is a plain drill. Agi-
tators are provided to prevent the grain bridging FIG. 274.-Steel seed box for
grain drills.
over in the box. They may be single or double
rods. Figure 275 shows a double-rod agitator. The grain feeds are in
the bottom of the box. There are two types of grain feeds: the fluted-
wheel and the internal double-run force feed.
306. The Fluted-wheel Feed.- The fluted-wheel feed IS considered

t he simpler of t he two feeds. It is also more generally used. It consists
mainly of a fluted-wheel feed roll, feed cutoff, and an adjustable gate.
FIG. 275.-Double-rod agitator.
Figure 276 shows that the feed roll and the cut-off are mounted on a
square shaft running through the feed cups. The feed roll turns with
2-For Coarse Seed

Fasten latch at rirht
side to sow peU,CQDlJD.DD
be&1ta and extra larr.
qul nt ltl... of trasby oats.
ATCH IN
l-BeJUlar Position TOP NOTCH
Oate up, with latch In
top notch at lett side, to
aow corn, beet., all rraIn
and lmall ..eeL
Fasten latch In lower 4-To Clean Feeds 6-For Soy Beans

=!~o";'t~lt :~di~~~ fe~°foJt:~~e~!hJ~~: m:.~~or;~..",; :::: ~g
beans. to clean teed. cotter (!In.
FIG. 276.-Fluted-wheel grain feed showing the various adjustments.
the shaft, forcing the grain out over the gate where it falls into the seed
tube. The gate is adjustable for different size seeds.
P ower is transmitted from the main axle to the feed shaft by gears or
sprockets and chains.
SEEDING MACHINERY FOR SMALL GRAINS 187
The quantity of seed sown per acre is varied by exposing more or less
of the feed roll to the seed inside of the
feed cup and by adjusting the gate. Fig-
ure 277 shows a typical indicator plate used
to adj ust the fluted feed roll to sow the
desired quantity per acre. The various
adjustments of the fluted wheel are shown
in Fig. 276.
307. The Internal Double-run Force
Feed.- This feed shown in Fig. 278 gets
its name from its construction. It consists
of a double-faced wheel having a small and
a large side. The small side is used for
planting small seeds while the large si.de is
used for planting larger seeds such as oats,
wheat, peas, and beans. Figure 278 shows
one side covered while the other is in use.
The lid is hinged over the middle of the FIG. 277.-Q uantity-feed dial indi-
wheel so it can be reversed to cover either cator for fluted-wheel grain feed .
side.
The quantity of seed sown per acre is varied by varying the speed of
the feed wheels. Figure 219 shows an arrangement for changing the
FIG. 278 .-Internal double-run force-feed grain feed; left cover on right or large side; right
cover on left or small side.
speed. Special attachments to reduce the size of the outlets and adjust-
able gates also aid in regulating the
quantity of seed sown per acre.
308. Seed Tubes.-Seed tubes are
provided to conduct the seed from the
feed cup down through the boot and
furrow opener into the furrow.
The most common type of seed
tube is the steel ribbon shown in Fig.
280. Being rolled with the lower edge
slightly thinner than the upper edge
FIG. 279.-Method of va.rying the makes the tube collapsible to half its
quantity of seed sown per acre with the normal length without diminishing the
internal double-run feed.
inside diameter or retarding the even
flow of grain through it.
A B
FIG. 280.-Seed box showing grass-seed attachment: A, shows grass-seed tube arranged
to sow behind grain; B, shows tube for sowing grass seed either ahead or with the grain.
FIG. 281.-Hoe-type furrow opener. FIG. 282.-Shoe-type furrow opener.
FIG. 283. FIG. 284.

FIG. 283.-Single-disk furrow opener.
FIG. 284.-Cr oss-section of drill disk showing bearing : A, disk blade; B, disk-bearing case;
C, disk bearing; D , felt washer; E, steel dust cap; F , dust-cap spring .
•
Other kinds of seed tub ~s are the steel wire, the rubber, and the
telescope.
Figure 280 shows how the grass-seed tube is attached to the regular
seed tube.
When fertilizer is being dist:ributed it may also pass down the regular
grain-seed tube.
309. Boot.-The boot is the hollow casting into which the lower end
of the seed tube extends and to which the furrow openers are attached
(Fig. 288) .
310. Furrow Openers.-There are four types of furrow openers used
on grain drills: the hoe, shoe, single, and double disk.
The hoe furrow opener shown in Fig. 281 consists of a single- or
double-pointed shovel fastened to the lower part of t he boot. The grain
drops into the furrow directly back of the shovel.
.;
A spring or pin trip is provided so that whEin a
hoe strikes an obstruction, no damage is done.
This type of opener often gives trouble by clogging
up when used in trashy ground.
The shoe furrow opener (Fig. 282) is made from
two flat pieces of steel welded together to make a
cutting edge similar to the curved-runner opener
used on corn planters.
Single-disk f urrow openers coiJ.sist of one disk
slightly dished and securely fastened to the boot
and set to run at a slight angle (Fig. 283) . The
seed are · dropped from the boot on the convex
side of the disk at a point below and to the rear
of the center. A toe scraper is used on the con- FIG. 285.-View of
vex side and a tee scraper on the concave side to double-disk opener wit h
one disk removed to show
keep the disk clean. how seed is protected be-
The single-disk opener gives good penetration, tween disk until it reaches
the open furrow.
cuts trash well, and does not easily clog.
H alf of the openers are assembled with the concave side facing the
right and half to the left. P enetration is aided by spring pressure. They
may also be set staggered or in a straight line.
Since the disks revolve, they must be provided with bearings that are
well designed, constructed, and lubricated. Figure 284 shows a cross-
section of the various parts of a well-designed di sk bearing.
Figure 283 shows the correct and wrong way to set single-disk furrow
openers.
A double-disk opener is composed of two disks, having very little dish,
set facing each other 8.t a slight angle so as to form a bevel-cutting edge
where they penetrate the soil. In this position the disks open a clean
furrow and leave a small ridge in the center so that, when the seed are
deposited in the furrow, there is a tendency to make two distinct rows
about 1 inch apart. A cutaway view of a double-disk furrow opener is
shown in Fig. 285. The seed are pro-
tected while passing between the disks
until they reach the bottom of the
furrow.
Lister or deep-furrow openers are
shown in Figs. 286 and 287.
311. Covering Devices.-The most
FIG. 286.-Single-disk deep-furrow
opener and type of furrow made. common type of covering device is the
drag chain. Figure 288 shows how it is
hooked to the boot and how it drags over the furrows to cover the seed
without packing the soil.
In the subhumid regions where the soil is dry and where the soil is
liable to blow, pTess wheels are used to cover the seed and press the soil
around them. Figure 289 shows a drill
equipped with large press wheels. The
regular wheels are replaced by the press
wheels. The latter also drive the seeding
mechanism. Small gang press wheels (Fig.
290) also may be obtained .
312. Size of Drill.-The size of a grain
drill is determined by the number of furrow
openers and the distance they are spaced
apart. The size is expressed as 18 by 7
which means there a~ 18 furrow openers
spaced 7 inches apart. Drills can be
secured with the feeds and furrovv openers
spaced either 6, 7, or 8 inehes apart.
313. Land Measures.-Grain drills are
all equipped with a small device, similar
to the one shown in Fig. 291, which is called
a land measure or a surveyor . Tlus is an
instrument which is so designed that it
determines the number of acres sown. If FIG. 287.-New-style lister fur r ow
opener and type of furrow made.
the operator will keep a record of the
number of bushels placed in the seed box and the number of acres sown,
a check can be made as to the accuracy of the drill in the amoun t of
seed being sown per acre. TIlls is not termed calibration.
314. Calibration of Grain Drills.-Many grain drills do not sow
accurately, even though the indicator on the dial plate is set correctly.
Some will sow more seed than the .dial indicates, while others will ROW less.
Oftentimes the operator will attempt to check the drill in the field
by measuring off a certain acreage, seeding it, and, then, determining the
FlG. 28fl.-Footboard and covering chains.
amount of seed sown. At best, this is a very poor method of checking a

drill.
FIG. 289.-Grain drill equipped with large press wheels, grass-seed attachment and tongue
truck.
The method of calibrating a drill is as follows: First, find the width

of the strip the drill will sow. Measure the distance between furrow
openers and multiply it by the number on the drill. Next, find the
length of the strip of that width necessary t o make 1 acre. This is
done by dividing 43,560-the number of square feet in 1 acre-by the
width of the strip sown by the drill. The result will be the distance
the drill must travel to sow 1 acre of grain.
Stlt bin mUlt . 10,.
I ::r::~'dr':~~",P!~~~'
/;~ OD pnss whit'••
/
FIG. Z90.-Small press wheels.
Now, find the number of times the wheels on t he drill will turn in
going this distance by dividing the distance to be traveled by the cir-
cumference of the wheel.
Fill the seed box ·with grain.
FIG. Z91.-Land-measuring device.
Set indicator on the scale to sow whatever quantity.of seed is desired.

Jack up the drill and place a paper bag under each seed tube. Tie
a rag around each tire so each revolution of each wheel can be counted.
Engage the clutch and turn the wheels, counting each revolution.
Turn them about the same speed they would travel in the field. When
the wheels have been turned the equivalent of 7i or Y2 acre, the grain
is collected and weighed. The weight of grain sown by each feed should
be recorded separately so each feed cup can be checked. The amount
is multiplied by 4 if >'4: acre was selected; and by 2 if Yz acre was sown to
figure on an acre basis .
. If what is used and the indicator is set to sow 8 pecks, 8 pecks should
have also been collected. If only 6 pecks of grain are collected the drill
is in error.
The percentage of error of the indicated quantity is calculated by
dividing the difference between the quantity collected and the quantity
the indicator was set on by the indicated quantity.
315. Furrow-opener Lifts.-The furrow openers are lifted either by
hand levers or by power-lifting devices. If by hand, there is one lever
provided for each half of the furrow openers. When
the drill is large and drawn by a tractor, power lifts
(Fig. 292) similar to those used on plows make it
possible for the tractor operator to ra,ise and lower
the furrow openers by simply pulling a rope to engage
the clutch.
316. Tractor Hitches.-Where the ground is level
and the acreage to be seeded is large, several grain
drills may be arranged in such a manner that they all
can be hitched to one tractor. One drill is usually
hitched directly behind the tractor; then, with a spe-
cial designed hitch, shown in Fig. 293, other drills are
hitched to each side. As many as five large drills may
be hitched to the same tractor.
317. Grass-seed Attachment.-A grass-seeding FIG 292.-
Power lift for grain-
attachment can be secured fo;" all grain drills. When drill furrow openers.
used, it is attached in front of the main seed box, as
shown in Fig. 280. The fluted-wheel type of feed is used in the feed cups.
The seed tubes either empty directly into the regular grain-seed tube or
they may be clamped to the side and let the grass seed fall behind the
furrow openers.
318. Fertilizer Attachments.-When a fertilizer attachment is used
the drill is usually known as a f ertilizer drill, even though it is equipped
with the regular grain-sowing feeds. Figure 295 shows a cross-section
of a fertilizer drill. The feed for distributing the fertilizer is shown in
detail in Fig. 296 and is the same as will be described under Fertilizer
Machinery. The regular grain-seed tube serves as a spout to conduct
the fertilizer down to the soil and prevents the wind blowing part of it
away.
319. One-horse Drill.-It is often desirable to sow some of the small
grains, peas, or soybeans between the rows of growing crops at the
last cultivation. A special type of drill for doing such work has beeu
made in the form of the one-horse five-hole drill shown in Fig. 298. It
FIG. 293.-Two types of two-drill tractor hitches.
FIG. 294.-Tractor grain drill equipped with 28 furrow openers. Note the swath markers.
FIG. 295.-Cross-section of fertilizer drill showing grain and fertilizer feeds.
is a rather short narrow machine having a seed box, steel wheels, and
furrow openers on the. same principle as that of the regular type. The
weight of the machine is carried on a large wheel in front and two small
ones behind. The large wheel in front acts as a drive wheel transmitting
power to the grain feeds by means of a chain and sprocket. lIandles
_._-Pllf III FEED

WHEEL
FIG. 296.-Fertilizer feed.
are provided for the operator to guide the machine. Grass-seed and
fertilizer attachments may be secured on these machines.
320. Alfalfa Drill.-Alfalfa and grass seed are sown in rows closer
together than the average grain drill will
sow them. A special drill having furrow
openers 4 inches apart is now being made.
This makes an excellent drill for sowing
alfalfa, clover, red top, timothy, blue grass,
rape, sudan grass, millet, flax, and hemp.
These different seeds can be planted in a
large variety of quantities to the acre.
There is no great difference between the '
alfalfa and regular drills other than that
the feed cups and furrow openers are placed
closer together on the alfalfa drills. The
feed wheels are the ' internal, double-run, ...
force-feed type and are made smaller than FIG. 297.-Fertilizer attachment
placing fertilizer above seed.
those on the regular drills. In some types
of drills the speed of the grain feeds is changed by an arrangement of
spur gears.
321. Draft of Grain Drills.-Kranich 1 states that the draft of a plain
drill will average around 6 pounds per furrow opener per inch of depth.
I KRANICH, F. N. G., "Farm Equipment," The Macmillan Company, New York,
1923.
The kind of seed being sown, the quantity in the seed box, the depth of
seeding, the type of soil and its moisture content, the grade, and the
condition of the drill are important factors that will influence the draft
of a grain drill.
FIG. 298.-One-horse five-hole drill.
BROADCASTERS
Broadcasting is the oldest and simplest method of sowing seed.
When the sower went forth to sow, in the time of our Savior, he carried
FIG. 299.-Knapsack broad cast seeder.
seed in a bag and broad casted them by hand. Broadcasting with a

machine is more accurate and rapid than when done by hand. Types of
machine broadcasters are the knapsack, end-gate, two-wheel, and
wheelbarrow.
SEEDING MACHINERY FOR SMALL GRAINS
197
322. Knapsack.- This seeder consists of a good-sized canvas ac k
astened to a seeding mechanism, the whole being slung over tbe shoulsd
· 2 )
F 19. ers
99. A crank turned by hand revolves a wheel baving several
lifferent radial ribs for scattering the seeds. The ribs throw the seeds
mt to the front and sides in a steady stream. The quantity of seed is
'egulated by a sliding gate. The wider the gate is opened the more seed
)er acre will be sown. This type of seeder =====:::;;;;;;;:;;;;J,I
s good for sowing clover seed and small
;rass seed on lawns and fields in the early
.pring. Other types of knapsack seeders
nay have the wheel for scattering the
.e ed placed in a vertical plane in front of
he seeder. Still others, instead of having
me wheel placed in a horizontal plane, may FIG. 300.-End-gate broadcast
seeder.
lave two wheels, turning in opposite direc-
.i ons, placed opposite each otber. The seeds are dropped on the inner
:i des and thrown to the front and sides.
323. End-gat e Seeder.-The end gate is an attachment that is
)laced on the rear end of a wagon box (Fig. 300). It consists of a hopper,
L feeding device, and either one or two distributing wheels. These
'adial-ribbed distributing wheels are driven by a chain and sprocket,
'eceiving their power from the left rear wheel of the wagon.
FIG. 301.-Wide-track broadcast seeder.
324. Two-wheel Horse-drawn Broadcaster.-There are two types of

;wo-wheel hOl'se-dl's.w n broadcasters : the narrow track and the wide track
:Fig. 301). It is claimed that the narro'w-track seeder (Fig. 302) is more
:>ractical where covering devices are not used . It also eliminates whip-
:>ing of the tongue on rough ground.
Both types use the fluted-wheel type of feed. The narrow-track
oro ad caster has grain spouts hinged to the seed cups and are held in
position by a stout coil spring. If a spout should strike a stump or other
I)bstruction, it will swing back out of the way and then return ·to position.
Markers are provided at each end of the hopper on the narrow-track

broadcasters. Markers are not necessary on the wide-track broadcasters,
FIG. 302.-Narrow-track broadcast seeder.
because the wheels leave a track which serves as a guide. Where it is

desirable to cover the seed, two-wheel wide-track broadcasters can be
TABLE XI .-DUTY OF SEEDING MACHINERY
llate, Rate,
Location and item Crew J Location and item Crew 1
acres acres
General United otates: Nebraska:

6-foot drill. 1-2 9.1 Phelps County:
8-foot drill .. '.. .. 1-3 12 .2 7-, 8-foot drill ........ .. . 1 -3.5 11.4
8-foot drill .. 1-4 14.6 Saline County:
8-foot drill .. 1- 6 16.9 7-, 8-foot drill .......... 1 -4.3 11.9
Western New York: Keith County:
9-boe drill .. .. 1-2 9.6 3-11-, 7-foot drill .. . .... -3.3 10.8
10-h oe drill ......... ....... 1- 2 10.0 Kansa.:
ll-hoe drill ...... . .... . .. .. 1-2 10.4 Pawnee (tractor) 12-, 16-
Central Illinois: hoe drill ... . ..... .... 3 --0 35 .0
8-foot drill .. .... ...• ... ... 1-4 14 . 7 Nebraska:
Utah .... .... . . ..... ... ...... 1-2 11.1 Phelps drill (tractor) ... .... 1 --0 17.8
Kansas: Keith drill (tractor) ... .. .. 1.7 36 . 4
Ford County: Ccntral Illinois :
8-, 12-foot drill .. 1-4.8 18.2 End-gate seeder:
Pawnee County: 20.2 feet. .... .. ... . .. .. 1 -2 38.5
8-, 12-foot drill ... 1-4 5 1i .4 25.8 feet . .............. 1 -2 43.3
McPherson County: 30.0 feet .....•......... 1 -2 48.6
8-, 12-foot drill ... 1-4 15.6 34.9 feet . .... . ... .. .. . 1 -2 51.3
Missouri: 39.0 feet ............... 1 -2 58.2
Saline County: General United States:
7-, 8-foot drill . 1-3.5 12.5 Knapsack ......... .. ..... 23.0
Jasper County: Wbeelbarrow, 14-foot .... .. 21.0
6-, 7-, 8-foot drill. 1-3.2 11.7 Louisiana.:
St. Charles County : Broadcast by hand:
1-3.1 1 Yo bushels p er acre . . ... 12.50
8-, lO-foot drill .. .. 10.5
2 bushels p er acre ....... - 14 .11
1 First figure refers to number of men and second figure to number of horses in crew.
U. S. Dept. Aor· Yearbook, 1922.
obtained with hoe-type coverers. Seed boxes are available for mounting
on disk harrows and one-way disk plows.
SEEDING MACHINERY POR SMALL GRAINS 199
325. Wheelbarrow Broadcaster.-The wheelbarrow seeder is com-
posed of a wheelbarrow frame "rith a long seed box mounted on the front
end. This box is about 3 inches square and about 8 to 16 feet in length.
326. The Duty of Seeding Machinery. -Table XI shows the num-
ber of men and the power required to operate the various types of seeders.
The table also shows the acreage sown in a lO-hour day for the various
types.
PART VI
CULTIVATING MACHINERY
CHAPTER XX
CULTIVATORS
About half of the labor of growing a crop is spent in the preparation of

the seed bed and the planting of the seed. When the seed have germi-
nated and the plants are just beginning to get above the top of the soil,
it is time to begin stirring the soil around them to prevent and destroy
weeds, to keep the top of the soil in such condition as to conserve mois-
ture, and to allow the circulation of air b eneath the surface of the soil.
All of these are beneficial to the plant, as is seen in the way it thrives.
The main purpose in mind, when cultivating, is to promote the growth
of the crop. Otherwise, no cultivation would be needed. The question
is, what are t he various ways of promoting growth by cultivation? Some
are as follows:
1. The leading object is to retain moisture by :

a. Killing weeds.
b. Loose mulching on sluface.
c. R etaining rainfall.
2. D evelop plant food.
3. Aerate the soil to allow oxygen to penetrate soil.
4. Promote activity of microorganisms.
327. Types.-There are many types of cultivators in use. Some are

very crude, using two or three shovels for stirring the soil on one side of
the row at a time. Then, there are the very up-to-date types where two,
three, or four rows are cultivated at one trip across the field. In order
that a brief discussion may be given for all types of cultivators suitable to
different conditions, the following classes are given, according to capacity
and mode of operation: one-half-row one-horse-walking, one-row two-
horse walking, one-row two-horse riding, one-row two-horse combination
riding and walking, two-row three- or four-horse or tractor riding, and
in a few cases three-row horse or tractor riding. When classified accord-'
ing to the equipment and conditions they are designed for, there are '
shovel, disk, surface, and lister cultivators.
200
CULTIVATORS WI
WALKING CULTIVATORS
328. Garden Cultivators.-Figure 303 shows a typical garden culti-
vator. It is used with either single or double wheels. The CUltivating
equipment includes a pair of hiller hoes, cultivator teeth, rake teeth, and
a plow. Any of the tools used must be operated by hand power.
FIG. 303.-Garden cultivator showing various attachments.
329. One-half-row One-horse Walking Cultivator.-Where the farm

includes only a few acres and these probably not cleared of stumps, the
one-half-row walking cultivator, as shown in Fig. 304, is almost a neces-
sity. Through the timbered belt of the East and South, this type of
cultivator is used quite extensively, but it is not advised that it be used
FIG. 304.-Seven-tooth one-horse one- FIG. 305.-Spring-tooth one-horse

ha If-row cultivator. cultivator.
where any other type can be substituted . T o cultivate one row it is

necessary to make one t rip across the field cultivating half of the middle
between the rows and another trip to cultivate the other, half.
Using this cultivator to cultivate 40 acres, with the rows 3 feet apart,
one, two, three, or four times, a man would travel 219.5, 498.0, 658.5, and
878.0 miles, respectively.
202 FARM MACHINERY AN~ EQUIPMENT
Some of the better types of one-horse one-half-row cultivators have

from 5 to 14: shovels placed irregularly on the frame which can be adjusted
for width. Figures 305 and 306 show a 5-tooth spring tooth and a 14-
tooth cultivator. If the soil is in good condition, there being no large
weeds or grass, one complete middle may be cultivated at one trip across
the field. If it is not desired to cultivate the complete middle, the shovels
can be drawn closer together by
narrowing the frame and one-half
row cultivated at one trip across the
field.
330. One-row Two-horse Walking
Cultivator.-This cultivator, as shown
in Fig. 307, will cultivate both sides
FIG. 306 .-Fourteen-tooth scratcher of the row at one trip across the field.
cultivator.
Two horses are use d to pu 11 t h e ma-
chilJe. This cultivator is mounted upon two wheels, and on aU-shaped
axle which is adjustable for width. It, also, has gangs or rigs to which
shovels are attached by means of shanks. There may be two or three
shovels to the. gang. A handle is attached to each gang to enable the
operator to control the gangs, shifting them to the side to dodge plants.
The parallel shift or cross-head gang shown in Fig. 307 prevents the
shovels trailing when shifted sidewise. Each gang is provided with lift-
FIG. 307.-0ne-row walking cultivator.
ing springs to aid in lifting and carrying the greater part of the weight,
thereby relieving the operator. When it is not in use, the gangs can be
hung up on the hang-up hooks.
On all shovel shanks some provision is made to prevent bending,
twisting, and breaking the beam and shank. The methods are the
wooden pin, friction trip, and the spring trip shown in Fig. 309.
C.UL TI VA TORS 203
The walking cultivator is used principally on large plantations of the
South where unskilled labor is used. Plantation owners claim that
better results can be obtained by having the negro ,ralk than by putting
FIG. 308.-Culti vating young cotton with walkin g cultivator. (Cou,rtesy Anderson Clayton
Company.)
him on a riding cultivator. The reason for this is that he will pay more
attention to what he is doing while walking than while riding. If placed
on a riding cultivator, he has a tendency to become careless and will not
do a good job of cultivating. To avoid any such tendency the plantation
~ t
Spring Trip
Break-Pin Trip
Fridion Trip
FIG. 309.-Types of cultivator trips.
owners make the operator walk so that he will remain thoroughly awake,
giving more attention to the operation of the cultivator and do a better
job of cultivation.
f
To cultivate 40 acres one, two, three, and four times, with a one-row
walking cultivator, a man is required to walk 109.7, 219.5, 329.2, and
439.0 miles, respectively.
RIDING CULTIVATORS
331. One-row Types.-GeneraUy the one-row riding cultivator is

popular in almost all sections 'where rmv crops are grown. Of course,
there are areas where the two-row or some special type of cultivator
predominates. One-row riding cultivators may be classed according
to the type of cultivating unit used, which are: shovel, disk, and surfa('~.
J 332. Shovel Cultivators.- The shovel cultivator 'with its large
variety of shovels, swyeps, and attachments, is thc most widely used of
all types. A typical one-row riding cultivator is shown in Fig. 310.
FIG. 310.-0ne-row riding .! lhovel culth-ator.
J
333. Disk Cultivator.-The disk cultivator, shown in Fig. 311, is
not extensively used but finds favor where the plants are grown on ridges
or the field is infested with vines. The revolving disks readily cut the
vines, thereby preventing their collecting on the gangs. The disk gangs
have a wide range of adjustm~nt; they can be set to throw the soil
either toward or away from the plants at any desired angle.
Most disk cultivators can be converted into a shovel or spring-tooth
cl(ltivator by changing the gangs.
~ 334. Surface Cultivators.-The surface cultivator shown in Fig. 312
is equipped with long blades which do not penetrate deeply. The blades
are set at an angle and with sufficient pitch to slice off the weeds and
stir the surface of the soil. If deeper penetration is desired, the pitch
of the blades is changed to dig in deeper. It is essential that the blades
CULTIVATORS 205
on both sides be set with the same angle, to prevent the gangs crowding
to the right or left.
335. Wheels.-The wheels on riding cultivators are larger than those
on walking cultivators and are around 40 inches in diameter. Tires
FIG. 31l.-Disk cultivator.
may be either concave, flat, oval, or convex. The conqave tire is best
for sandy land while the flat tire is best for black or heavy lands. The
hub of the wheel should have a removable boxing so that, when worn, a
FIG. 312.-Surface cultivator.
new one can be put in and prevent having to buy a complete new wheel.
The wheels are lubricated by means of hub caps, grease cups, and
high-pressure fittings.
336. Axles.-Axles on cultivators are never made in one piece.

They are always divided in the middle, and the ends of these axles slip
into the frame and can be moved in and out to suit the width of the
row (Fig. 313).
337. Frame.-The frame forms the real backbone of the cultivator.
To it are attached the tongue, the levers, the gangs, the seat, and the
wheels by means of the axles.
33S. Seats.-Two kinds of seats are found on cultivators, namely,
the straddle (Fig. 310) and the hammock (Fig. 322) .
.. --
Jf'1 wnew Iii or ovl.lor dlfferenl wldl/JJ
sImp, lowen Jei-.Kr£'H<J and ,Ikp ork:! Iii or out
in O'.(k J/«~- (7J,m;7,e QhtJ'r-vkt/kfwl'-Ill.
FIG. 3l3.-Common method of varying djstance between cultivator wheels to suit the
width between rows.
The straddle seat is the most common. The seat is bolted to a

seat bar extending backward from the frame. The operator straddles
over the bar in much the same manner as when astride a horse.
The hammock seat is suspended between two bars: thus, the operator
has an unobstructed view of the plants.
339. Balancing of Frame.- The cultivator is constructed to auto-
matically balance on the two wheels, both when the shovels are In or
out of the grolJ.nd. When the gangs are raised, however, their weight,
which was mostly on the ground, is transferred to the frame back of the
.axle, thus creating a tendency for the
pole to raise in front.
There are two general methods by
which cultivators are balanced: First,
the entire cultivator frame is shifted for-
FIG. 3l4.-Method of shifting posi- ward, with relation to the axle. This
tion of axle and wheel to balance culti- means that, as the gangs are raised, the
vator frame.
weight of the gangs and of the operator
is shifted forward to properly balance the cultivator. Second, the
position of the wheels, with relation to the frame, is shifted back-
ward as the gangs are raised. To balance the machine for different
weight operators, the wheels can be set backward or forward by means
of a series of holes in the lower end of the master lever, or by adjusting
the length of the brace rod which extends from the master lever to the
axle, as shown in Fig. 314.
LEVERS
Cultivators are equipped with several levers, as shown in Fig. 310, to
facilitate their adjustment and handling.
CULTIVATORS 207
340. Master Lever.-The main function of the mast er lever is to

raise and lower both gangs as a unit. It also aids in shifting the parts
necessary to balance the cultivator.
341. Gang Lever.-There is a gang lever for each gang to adju st
the depth of the shovels, and raise
and lower each gang independently.
342. Spacing Lever.-The spacing
lever is used to change the distance
between gangs. This may b e located
conveniently to one side, in front of
the operator on the front ends of the
gangs, or back of the operator on the
rear ends of the gangs. When at-
tached to the gangs in front or rear
of operator, it is often called a jockey
m·ch.
343. Leveling or Tilting Lever.
This lever is located on the rear end FIG. 3lD.-Easy melhod of ad justing foot
p edals to suit oper ator.
of the pole and makes it possible to
level the frame and gangs easily and quickly, when using teams of differ-
ent heights and cultivating up and down hill. It is not necessary to raise
and lower the shanks to make the shovels run uniformly in depth .
344. Foot Pedal.-The foot pedals or stirrups may be classed as levers
even though they .a.re operated by the feet instead of the hands. They are
used to control the gangs, shifting them
to eit h er the right or left (Fig. 315).
345. Gangs.-As shown in Figs.
309 and 316, the gang or rig is the
complete assembly of beam, shanks,
and shovels. There are two to each
one-row cultivator. Cultivators m ay
b e equipped with four, sit., or eight
shovels .
346. Beam.-The beam may be
made of round, squ are, flat, I-beam, or
channel steel. There are several ways
FlO. 316.-Cultivator gangs.
of connecting the b eams to the frame.
The type of b eam that is b ecoming most common is shown in Fig. 316.
The front end of the beam is curved up and connects directly to the frame.
This is usually a rigid connection allowing no lateral movement.
Anot her method allows the gang to pivot at the front end. The
connections are provided with cone couplings which permit taking up
lost motion due to wear.
208 F'ARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Figure 317 shows how the type of connection will influence the uni-
formity of penetration of the shovels.
Figure 318 shows how the lateral movement is influenced.
A B
FIG. 317.-A, shows how shovels enter the ground when the gang is hinged at the front and
lowered by the lever; B, shows uniform depth of shovels on entering the soil.
347. Shank.-The mund or flat pieces fastened, in a vertical position,

to the beam by clamps or swiveled eyebolts are called shanks.
348. Sleeve.-The lower end of the shank is adjustable and is referred
to as the sleeve. It may be either round or slotted. Figure 319 shows
A B
FIG. 3l8.-A, shows the action and movement of gangs and shovels when pivoted at the
front; B, shows the movement when the gangs are shifted parallel. .
various settings for cultivator shovels. The setting recommended for

shovels is a 47-degree angle. Where sweeps are used, no definite angle
can be recommended.
CULTIVATORS 209
A B
FIG. 319.-Showing correct and incor- FIG. 320.-Cultivator spring trip: A, trip in
rect pitch of cultivator shovels: 1, shovel action; B, trip should be oiled. .
properly adjusted; 2, shovel set too fiat; 3,
shovel set too straight, will not penetrate
or run steadily.
T T,
, ,,
,
..l J-E-_ .. ~ sf~.+1 .i. I
straight Twisted Hoof Double Poin+ed
Shovel Shovel Shovel Or
Reversible Shovel
1/
1---- - - -10· - - -----I
J( ;:_
~---- --8~----+I ~----- 8~--.+l 1---- .. 9f2_- - •• ~
Sweep furrower Half Sweep
FIG. 321.-Cultivator shovels and sweeps.

349. Trips.-To prevent breaking or twisting the shank when the

shovel strikes an obstruction, it is necessary to have a safety device.
This is called a trip. There are three types, namely, the break pin, the
friction, and the spring trip (Fig. 309). The last is most used and is
shown in operation in Fig. 320.
350. Shovels and Sweeps.- There are many different types of both
shovels and sweeps. Figure 321 shows several types of each. Points
for the hoof shovel are now made of knife-section steel.
GANG CONTROL
The most common methods of controlling cultivator gangs, to follow
the row and prevent plowing up the plants are: the direct foot control,
Hammock
Sea1-
FIG. 322.-Direct foot-controlled type of cultivator.
the seat guide, the pivot axle, the parallel shift, and the combination
paralJel shift and pivot axle.
351. Direct Foot Control.-To enable the operator to control the
gangs by the use of his feet, simply forcing each gang sidewise independ-
ently of the other, it is necessary to have the gangs work as freely as
possible.
The gangs are fastened to the front arch by pivot couplings and are
suspended at the rear by steel pipes or pendulums fastened at the top to
rocker arms, which project from the axle arch (Fig. 322). H andles on
the pendulums and stirrups on the gangs enable the operator to handle
the gangs with his hands, or feet, or both.
352. Seat Guide.- This control is often known as the wiggletail, pivot
pole, or pivot frame. The gangs are controlled by shifting the seat side-
wise by an easy swaying motion of the body aided by pushing with the
feet against the gangs. The seat support, which is fastened to the axle
CULTIVATORS 211
arch, extends to the rear for the seat and to the front where it pivots with
the rear end of the tongue. Therefore, when the rear end of the tongue
is moved sideways, to right, or left, by shifting the seat, the frame, wheels,
and gangs are angled in the opposite direction.
353. P ivot Axle.- The pivot axle, sometimes called a pivot wheel
cultivator, gets its name from the way the wheels are pivoted to the right
or left. Foot pedals, extending toward the center of the machine, are
placed on the axle. Both wheels are so connected that they swing
together and remain parallel. A slight pr'essure on either foot pedal
pivots the wheels. No sidewise movement of the gangs is obtained,
however, until the cultivator is drawn forward. The whole action is
similar to that of steering an automobile.
This control is useful on hillsides, among stumps and trees, and where
short turning is practiced.
354. Parallel Shift.- This control is often called the pivot gang or
treadle guide. The gangs are rigidly connected together at the front by
bars. Foot levers hanging from the axle arch are cOllnected to the gang
bars, usually by chains and pulleys. When it is desired to fnove the
gangs to the right, the operator pushes forward on the right foot lever.
This action shifts both gangs to the right as a unit, keeping them equally
spaced from front to rear and also parallel.
The tongue, frame, and wheels are held rigid. The gangs are the
only parts that shift.
355. Combination Parallel-shift and P ivot Axle.-This type of con-
trol is being extensively used, since it gives a quick response and is easily
operated. It is, as the name indicates, a combination of the two shifts
already described-the parallel shift and the pivot axle.
T he front of the gangs is connected to the axle of the wheels. Foot
pedals hang from the axle arch and are connected to the front of the gangs
by chains and pulleys or rocker arms. The gangs are shifted by pressure
on the foot pedals. This shifts the gangs on the frame and simultane-
ously pivots the wheels. Gangs and wheels move in the same direction,
thus, giving a quick response. The gangs remain parallel to the crop
rowand, consequently, do a thorough job of cultivation (B Fig. 318).
356. H itch.-Two things should be kept in mind in adjusting the
hitch on a cultivator. First, hitch the singletree at such a height that it
will be on a straight line extending from the shovels in the ground, to the
point where the traces are attached to the hames. Second, watch the
point where the draft is applied to the gangs. On some cultivators, there
is a vertical clevis adjustment at the front of the gangs, so that by hitching
higher or lower the gang will run shallower or deeper. The proper adjust-
ment will make considerable difference in the labor of getting the shovels
to run at the desired depth.
SPECIAL ATTACHMENTS
. A wide range of attachments suitable for different crops can be
secured for riding cultivators. They include shi elds, disk hillers, wing
hillers, spring-tooth attachments, fertilizer attachments, tobacco hoeing
attachments, center shovel, spring-tooth center shovel, and jockey arch.
Rot.tin&, Shield.
FIG. 323.-Shields or fenders used on cultivators.
357. Shields.-Shields are frequently referred to as fenders. There

are four types (Fig. 323) namely, the solid, the wire or open, the hooded,
and the rotating. The solid and the wire or open types are used quite
extensively through the' corn belt. The
solid is used mostly in the cotton belt.
The hooded shield is used where the
plants are planted in the listed furrow.
Shields are used to prevent young
plants from being covered up during
early cultivations.
368. Disk Hillers.-Figure 324
shows a disk-hiller attachment. It is
used to hill crops or for barring-off
cotton before chopping.
369. Wing Hillers.-This type of
FIG. 324.- Disk-hiller attachment and
jockey arch. hiller is used for the same purpose 88
the disk hiller.
360. Spring-tooth Attachment.-Three types of spring-tooth attach-
ments are shown in Fig. 325. Such attachments are used on sandy
lands for shallow cultivation to prevent and destroy weeds.
361. Fertilizer Attachment.-Figure 636 shows a fertilizer attachmen
for a riding cultivator. This n:-akes it possible to apply fertilizer as a
side dressing while cultivating.
CULTIVATORS 213
362. Tobacco -hoeing Attachment.-Figure 326 shows an attachment

used to cultivate close to tobacco plants.
363. Center Shove1.-Broadcast cultivation is possible when a center
shovel is used. .
364. Spring-tooth Center Shove1.- An attachment of spring teeth
can be placed between the gangs to eradicate weeds.
FIG. 325.- Spring-tooth attachments.
365. Jockey Arch.-Figure 324 shows a jockey arch in use on the

rear end of t he gangs, to space the distance between them.
TWO-ROW CULTIVATORS
For level country and where planting is aone with the two-row
planter, a large amount of time, labor, and expense is saved by culti-
FIG. 326.-T obacco attachment.
vating with a two-row cultivator. I n fact, on¥-half the time required

to cultivate a certain acreage with a one-row out fit is saved by the use
of a two-row machine. The average lO-hour day's work with a two-row
cultivator is 14.7 acres. The number of horses required to pull the
two-row cultivator is three or four .
The principal difference in the construction and handling of the

two-row cultivator and the one-row is that the two-row is built much
heavier, especially in the frame and wheels. ~ master lever is provided
. -
FIG. 327.-Two-row shovel cultivator.
to lift all gangs at the same time. Each gang has an independent l~ver
for adjusting the depth. A spacing lever is also provided . These are
all shown in Fig. 327.
FIG. 328.-Two-row cultivator which straddles one row culti\'ating two middles.
The distance traveled when cultivating 40 acres with the roWS 3

feet apart one, two, three, and four times is 54.9, 109.7, 164.6, and 229.4
miles, respectively. When the rows are 42 inches apart, the distance
traveled is 46.2, 92.5, 138.7, and 185.0 miles, respectively.
CULTIVATORS 215
366. Gang Types for Two-row Cultivators.- There are two general
arrangements of the gangs for cultivation on the two-row cultivator; one
must have a very wide frame and straddle the two rows which it culti-
vates, having one gang to cultivate each side of the two rows (Fig. 327).
The other has only two gangs placed on a narrow frame and straddles
one roW, but cultivates two middles (Fig. 328). The first type is the
one that requires three to four horses and at the same time requires
that the ro ws be the same distance apart. The second type requires
only two horses to cultivate two middles, but it has ~he disadvantage
that cultivation cannot be done close to the plant because there are very
FIG. 329.-Front view of two-row tractor cultivator.
few rows that are the same distance apart, and enough allowance must
be made for the narrow rows that will be found. In comparison of the
two, the wide fram e with the four gangs straddling two rows is the best .
36'1. Gang Control for the Two-row Cultivators.-There are three
IIlethods of controlling gangs on two-row cultivators : the parallel shift, the
pivot axle, and a combination of the parallel shift and pivot axle. The
is practically universally used on most two-row machines now.
controls are the same as described under One-row Cultivators .
. . Forecarriage.-The large two-row cultivators have a special
. . . .rrhtge or tongue truck to carry the weight of the front of the frame
Tractor Cultivators.- Traetor cultivators similar to those

in Figs. 329 to 331 are extensively used for cultivating row crops,
corn, cotton, and sorghum. All crops cultivated with two-
-.;..-- --
FIG. 330.-Tractor cultivator cultivating four rows of corn. Note ali the gangs are hinged
to a pipe extending across the front of the tractor.
FIG. 331.-Tractor cultivator cultivating four rows of cotton. Note that part of the gangs
are in front and part in the rear of the operator.
__. - -Gear shlrf lever

/
Fronf rrcrme pipe" /
/ .-' ~ - - - - - - Truss rod
/
/
/
/ /_-----Llf'Hng arm
/ /
,
\
•
FIG. 332.-Rear view of four-row tractor cultivator.

CULTIVATORS 2li
and four-row tractor cultivators should be planted with two- and four_
row planters.
The gangs may all be mounted toward the front of the tractor or they
may be divided and part of them located' to the front and part to the
rear of the operator. The cultivator forms a single unit with the tractor
and is controlled entirely from the tractor seat. As the tractor is steered
to the right or left, the front gangs are
automatically shifted in the direction the +l/'t /--;..;-=.==...;,;,,---- --
/, J
+ +\\+ ... __
+ i',,+,
t
tractor is steered. Some machines are 1+11+ + + +--+ + ;\ +
provided with a gang shift in addition to I
the steering shift. As a rule, the rear gangs I
't
,---------,
+t. + + +\+ .. l+
~ :
\
t
I.. • I. + + + :+ +: +
are rigidly mounted and cannot be shifted. , '
Many tractor-cultivator units have levers to
adjust the depth of the shovels, but most of I I
them are provided with power lifts to raise + + ++1++1+
the gangs while turning. On the larger units + + + +)+- +: +
each gang is equipped with individual gage + + \~ + 't--+' ~ -;' ~
wheels, so that the shovels follow the con- , /
T + +'.....t-__t_·_ !._.>/+ 'i-
tour of the ground along the row.
FIG. 333.-Method of turning
All the accessories mentioned in connec- two-row tractor when cultivat{,lg
tion with horse-drawn cultivators have been corn planted with check-row
planter. Two or more rows are
adapted for tractor cultivators and can be passed at the ~nds.
obtained as special equipment.
A six-row outfit is made by trailing two two-row riding cultivators
on the sides and rear of the regular two-row tractor cultivator.
TABLE XII.-AcCOMPLISHMENTS OF ANIMAL AND TRACTOR POWER IN
CULTIVATING COTTON, CORPUS CHRISTI AREA'
Crew Hours p er acre Horse Acres

Size of equiva- covered
Rorse Tractor
implement
Man I I
Horse Tractor Man I I
Horse Tractor
lent of
tractor
100bour
day
Horse ........Two-row 1 4 .. 0.65 2.60 .... ..... 15", •

Tractor Two-row l' .. 1 0. 45 .. . . 0.42 6.20 23.8
Tractor Four-row 2t " 1 0.50 .. ' 0.23 11.30 43.5
Tractor Six-row 3* .. 1 0.58 .. .. 0.19 13 . 70 52 . 6
I Tex . AliT. E xpl. Sla. Bull. 362, p. 13,1927 .

~ Additionnllabor used on some farms.
t Number of men in crew varies from one to three. with an average of approximately two men to the
crew. Tbere is a strong tendency for the four-row one-man tractor outfit to become standard.
370. Comparison of H orse and Tractor Cultivators.-An interestiilg

fact shown in Table XII is the horse equivalent of the tractor, for the
different size cultivators. The number of horses displaced by the tractor
or the number which would be required to do the same amount of work as
one tractor in an equal period of time ranged from 6.2 for the two-row,
11.3 for the four-row, to 13.7 for the six-row cultivator, when compared
with the usual two-row horse-drawn cultivator.
OPERATION SIZE OF IMPLEMEN HORSES REPLACED BY

HORSE TRACT OR TRACTOR
o y I?
2 ROW 2. ROW :;,~:.;, ~·:i;"·':"'· ",,;,.,; .';. 6.2
CULTIVATING 2ROW 4ROW ':..'.-.'.'., .. _ • •< c. -. :'. "'·,·:X:'·:>,:';:'HII.3
2 ROW & ROW ',::.'.,: ':,~ ' •• . • .,.•,' / : . . ..:<.... ' ::;.\....,.:. ,::.'::;'.:;:'.';' /3.7
F I G. 334.-Showing graphically the number of horses replaced by tractors. when c.ult.ivating

2, 4, and 6 rows of cotton. •
Comparison for cultivating shows 15.4 acres for a two-row horse outfit
and 23.8 acres for a two-row tractor outfit. Four- and six-row tractor-
drawn outfits cultivated, on an avera~e,
43:5 and 52.6 acres, respectively, during
a 10-hour day.
The horse equivalent of cultivators
is shown graphically in Fig. 334. The
greater acreage covered by the tractor
pulling an implement of the same si:z;e
as that drawn by horses is for the roost
part due to :
1. Its greater speed.
2. The relative small amount of time lost
in turning at the ends.
3. No stop for rest.
LISTER CULTIVATORS
Lister cultivators are particularly
adapted to the cultivation of a listed
crop in its early stages of development.
Listed crops are those planted in the
listed furrow or trench, or below the
general level of the ground. There
are four general types of lister culti-
vators; sled, wheel, two-row, and
three-row.
371. Sled Lister Cultivator.-The
sled cultivator is known in some local-
FIG. 335.-Sled lister cultivator. ities as the go-devil. Figure 335 shows
the complete outfit. It consists of
two oak runners to which are attached crusher boards near the front
end . Just back of these, on each side, are attached large side
knives, to destroy weeds and level the middles. Gangs of disks are
CULTIVATORS 219
coupled to the rear arch. They can be raised and lowered arid moved in
and out. Each gang is composed of three steel disks, 10, 11, and 12
inches in diameter. They have wood bearings.
FIG. 336.-Two-row li ster cultivator set for first cultivation.
372. Wheeled Lister Cultivators.- The essential difference between

the sled lister and the wheeled lister cultivator is that balance wheels are
used instead of runners. Friction is redu ced which greatly lessens the
draft. It is also built higher, placing the driver far enough above the
ground to avoid the dust and in a better position to handle his team.
FIG. 337.-First operation-regular FIG. 338.-Secolld operation with

cultivation. attachment.
The main lever raises disks, shovels, and shield as a unit. The
secondary lever raises shovels and shield only. A compression sprmg
gives necessary flexibility in crossing gullies or other depressions. Lister
cultivators can be obtained in two-, three-, four-, and five-row

combinations.
FIG. 339. -Five-row tractor-drawn lister cultivator.
FIG. 340.-Beet and hean cultiva tor.
FIG. 341.-Field cultivator.
The two-row horse-drawn lister cultivator, shown in Fig. 336, con-

sist s of two units of the wheeled type connected together by seat bar.
Each unit will follow its row whether the rows are parallel or not. For
it to accomplish this, however, the disks and shovels on each side of the
CULTIVATORS 221
row must be set at exactly the same angle as on the other side. The
cross-row forces are then equalized, allowing the machine to run straight
forward.
For the first cultivation, the disks are set to throw the soil away from
the plants, as shown in Fig. 337. The shovels are set to stir the edge of
FIG. 342.-Cross-row cotton chopper. The inset shows disks for cutting vines and grasS
a nd for blocking out t he plants.
the trench. The hood shield prevents the young plants from being
covered.
When cultivating the second time, the disks are set to throw the soil
into the trench around the growing crop (Fig. 338). The shovels are set
wide to cultivate between the rows.
If desired, sweeps and knives can
be substituted for the disks and
shovels.
Tractor lister cultivators can
be obtained in units ranging from
two- to five-rows. Figure 339
shows a five-row list er cultivator.
373. Beet and Bean Cultivators. .J
Figure 340 shows a four-row cul- FIG. 343.-Cotton chopper equipped with
tivator especially designed for cul- rotary knives.
tivation of crops grown in narrow rows. Two-row and three-row machines
can also be secured. This type of cultivator with some slight changes
is being tried out in the cotton belt to thin and block cotton, in the hope
222 FARM M ACHINER Y AND EQUIPMENT
that the slow, laborious, and costly job of ehopping cotton with the hand
hoe may be eliminated.
374. Field Cultivators.- A typical field cultivator is shown in F ig. 34l.
It is used for summer fallowing and to eradicate various kinds of weeds
in large fields.
FIG . .344.-C hopping cotton by hand. (Courtesy A nrirrsoll Clayt on Company.)
375. Draft of Cultivators.-Very little research has been done to

determine the draft of a cul tivator. The" Extension Service H and-
book'" gives, for a corn cultivator, 130 to 300 pounds draft per row
covered. The horsepower hours per acre vary from 1 to 2.5.
376. Cotton Choppers.- The cotton grower is greatly interested
III a mechanical device for thinning his cotton. Figures ' 342 and 343
FIG. 345 .- Three-row horse-drawn rotary hoe.
show attempts to construct such a tool. The greatest obj ection to the
machin s available is that they will only block the cotton. That is, the
cotton is left with several plants per hill some 8 or 10 inches between
hills. The prevailing practice is to thin to a single stalk stand. Another
1 " Extension Service Handbook on Agriculture and Home Economics," U. S.

Dept. Agr., 1926.
r..;UL/l'l VA'l'ORS
223
objection is that if the plants are not properly spaced, the machine will
likely cut out the plants that it is desired to leave. There is a tendency
FlO. 346.-Tractor pulling three rotary hoes.
FIG. 347.-Rod weeder.
FIG. 348.-Nine-standard subsoil cultivator equipped with double-pointed shovels.
in certain sections of the South, however, to leav.e more than one plant
per hill. In some instances, they plant thin and do not attempt to chop
at all. The elimination o(hand chopping (Fig. 344), if it can be done

without materially affecting the yield, will reduce the cost of production.
377. Rotary Hoe.-The machine shown in Fig. 345 is called a rotary
hoe because it is designed to break up the soil crust, stir the soil close
to the young plants, allow air and light to warm up the soil, and to
. destroy young weeds just starting to
take root. It can be used to advantage
in young corn, soybeans, cotton, pota-
toes, wheat, and oats.
378. Rod Weeders.-The rod
weeder (Fig. 347) is a machine for the
cultivation of summer fallow land.
The weeds are pulled up by a slowly
rotating round or square rod about Y2
inch in diameter and supported by
several subsoil points. The rod is
drawn a few inches und er the surface
of the soil and catches the weeds and
FIG. 349.-Fivc-standard subsoi l pulls them out. The revolving rod
cultivator.
prevents the weeds from collectinz on
it. Sizes of rod weeders range from 9 to 18 feet.
379. Subsoil Cultivators.-Subsoil cultivators (Fig. 348) are also
called subsoil tillers, chisel plows, and orchard cultivators. These culti-
vators stir the subsoil without raising it to the surface. Breaking
up the subsoil, hardpan, and plow sole aids root penetration, permits
deeper circulation of air, and increases the water absorption and holding
capacity of the soil. This type of tool is used in irrigated sections to
break up hardpans. Power lifts are provided to raise and lower the
shovels.
Attachments are available for converting the subsoil cultivator into
a lister, a regular subsoiler, and a border ridger.
PART VII
DUSTING AND SPRAYING MACHINERY
CHAPTER XXI
DUSTING AND SPRAYING EQUIPMENT
The problem of controlling insect pests and plant diseases makes it

necessary for a large percentage of farmers and orchardists to include in
their farm equipment machines for applying either dust or liquid insec-
ticides and fungicides. It is estimated that insect pests and plant
diseases cause an annual loss of several million dollars.l In addition
to these losses there is the cost of purchasing spraying equipment and
material, maintenance of equipment, and application of sprays and dusts.
FIG. 350.-Hand dusters.
The selection of the proper equipment to combat a certain insect

pest or plant disease is a problem that needs careful consideration.
DUST SPRAYERS
Many insects and plant diseases can be controlled more effectively

and economically with dusts than with liquid sprays. Thousands of
acres of cotton are annually dusted with calcium arsenate to control the
boll weevil and leaf worm. Potatoes and other field crops, as well as
garden and orchard crops, are dusted with various kinds of insecticides
and fungicides. Dusts may be applied with hand dusters, traction
dusters, power take-off dusters, and airplanes.
380. Hand Dusters.-The small hand-pump dusters shown in Fig.
350 are useful where only a few vegetables or flowers are to be dusted.
The special nozzle on the extension tube is for dusting upward from
beneath plants and vines. The crank duster (Fig. 351) is used where small
areas of plants are dusted. The duster is provided with both single and
1 AgT. Eng., Vol. 17, No.1, p. 13, 1936.
225
double nozzles. The fan for blowing the dust is driven by a chain, and
speed is obtained by gears. A saddle duster is shown '"in F ig. 352. The
FIG. 351.-Hand-gun duster.
outfit is placed en a mule or horse so that the operator may ride and dust
a row on each side.
381. Horse-drawn Ground-driven Dusters.-A small one-mule
two-rmv duster is shown in Fig. 353. The
machine is drawn by one mule and dusts two
rows of cotton. The nozzles extend back
behind the operator, who walks and guides
the machine, turning it at the ends. The
large wheel furnishes power for driving the
agitators and fan.
Figure 354: shows a one-horse, two-wheel,
..... three-row traction duster. The large wheel
drives the feed and the fan and supporti1.,
most of the weight of the machine. The
small wheel acts as a platform wheel similar
to that on a binder.
The traction power-cart duster (Fig. 355)
FlG. 352.-Saddle-gun duster.
is mounted on two wheels, one or both of
which may furnish power for operating the
dusting mechanism. In most machines the axle is adjustable for differ-
FlG. 353.-0ne-mule two-row traction duster.
ent width rows and is arched to a height sufficient to clear the plants.
DUS'l'ING AND SPRAYING EQUIPMENT 227
FIG. 354.-Front view of three-row one·horse outrigger duster.
'----~ ..
FIG . 355.-Two-wheel traction duster.
FIG. 356.-Rear view of power-cart duster dusting young cotton.

Straight axles are used on machines for dusting potatoes and other low-
growing crops. For cotton only one nozzle is required for each row
dusted, but for some crops two nozzles are required.
382. Power-cart Duster.-Thjs machine has a gasoline engine
mounted on the platform to furnish power to operate the dusting mecha-
FIG. 357.-Cross-section of elevating FIG. 358.-A ~ectional view of centril-

feed for duster. ugal discharge fan a.nd fan housing.
nism. The engine furnishes power to produce a sufficient velocity of air

to break up and separate the dust particles into a fine fog-like rrllst, which
is distributcd uniformly over the plants. Other features of the power-
cart du ster are practically the same as for the traction-power-cart duster.
Enough nozzles can be installed to dust up to ten rows of plants.
FIG. 359.-Tractor-mounted cotton duster.
Power-dusting units consisting of a complete dusting machine and

engine mounted upon a suitable base ready for operation are available.
Theee units can be mounted upon any homemade cart or t ruck.
383. Tractor-power Field Dusters.-Figu:-e 359 shows a dusting unit
mounted upon a platform bolted to the rear of a t ractor and operated
DUSTING AND SPRAYING EQUIPMENT 229
by the power take-off. Operating the tractor in high gear makes it

possible to dust a larger acreage than with horse-drawn machinery of
equal row capacity.
384. Orchard Power Dusters.-Figure 360 shows an orchard duster
equipped with an auxiliary engine. Others may be mounted on the rear
of a tractor and driven from the power take-off. Power units can be
mounted on the floor of a truck) thus saving the cost of a sp~cial sprayer
chassis. Orchard dusters have only one large flexible metal hose, which
can be turned to direct dust in any direction.
385. Agitators.-Agitators are to prevent dust preparations from
caking and packing in the hopper. Most agitators consist of projections
from horizontally mounted shafts, which revolve and keep the dust
broken up.
FIG. 360.- Power fruit duster.
386. Feeds.-Best results are obtained from dust "poisons" when

they are broken up into a fine fog-like dust. If small pellet-like particles
are blown out, they do not adhere to the plants as well as a very fine dust.
The feed usually consists of an opening into the air stream or fan housing.
R evolving over the opening is a brush or curved blades, to which leather
strips mayor may not be attached. The dust is uniformly fed either
directly into the fan or into the air stream coming from the fan. The
high velocity of the air aids in breaking the dust into. a fine fog.
387. Fan.-The centrifugal type of fan is most often used on dusting
machines. Fans usually have only one discharge opening, as shown in
Figs. 358 and 361. However, the fan shown in Fig. 358 has an opening
for each hose. Fans operate from 2,500 to 5,000 r.p.m. One company
claims their power machine will produce an air velocity of 125 miles per
hour at the fan outlet.
388. Airplane Dusters.-Airplanes have been successfully used to
apply dust to both field crops and orchards. A V-shaped hopper capable
of holding 500 pounds of calcium arsenate is built inside the fuselage
in the space ordinarily occupied by th e front seat. The opening in the

top for filling is covered by a close fitting lid, hinged in front. The
dust in the hopper is stirred just above the outlet at the bottom by an
agitator driven by a small propeller mounted on the lower wing (Fig. 363) .
The feed consists of an opening across the width of the fuselage. A slide
covering the opening is operated by the pilot. The amount the feed
valve is opened regulates the flow of dust and determines the poundage
applied per acre. A venturi nozzle (Fig. 363) is mounted underneath the
fuselage and slightly in front of the dust outlet. The rear end of the
nozzle is tipped slightly downward. The blast of air, which is created
Beating
mixing paddles Mixing chamb~r
FIG. 361.-Sectiona l view of a dust,er showing hopper, agitators, feed , and fan.
by the plane's propeller, rushes through the venturi nozzle at a high

velocity, catching the dust and discharging it in a whirling cylindrical
column that spreads and settles on the plants. It is claimed that the
high velocity of air through the nozzle creates a partial vacuum in the
feed opening, and this aids the flow of dust.
An airplane can dust approximately 350 or more acres per hour, which
is many times the acreage that can be dusted with any other type of
machine in the same length of time. 1 Data kept on the time required for
airplane operations show the average loading time to be 3 minutes
5 seconds, average flying time per load 14 minutes 30 seconds, and the
average dusting time per load 4 minutes 45 seconds. About one-third
of the time is spent in actually dusting, the remainder being consumed in
1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Fcmners' Bull. 1729, p. 14, 1934. ,
turning and flying to and from the landing field. 1 The average contract
price in 1936 for applying poisons to cotton was 4.5 cents per pound.
The farmer furnished and paid for the poison.
FIG. 362.-Dusting cotton by airplane. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.)
LIQUID SPRAYER S
Several liquid sprays are: Bordeaux mixture, lime-sulphur solution,
fish-oil soaps, oils, and oil emulsions. Machines for applying liquid
sprays differ from dusting machines because the sprayer requires a
pump instead of a fan to force the liquid out through the nozzle, which
can be adjusted to regulate the quantity applied. Power sprayers
FIG. 363.-Agitator driyc and venturi nozzle of airplane duster.
require a pressure regulator to take care of the pressure created by the

pump when all the nozzles are closed.
389. Hand Sprayer or Atomizer.-The hand sprayer or atomizer i:::;
invaluable for spraying all kinds of solutions around the home, in the
garden, poultry house, and barns. There are two types; namely, the
single-action and continuous-action atomizer. The single-action type
only acts on the stroke of the pump, but the continuous atomizer build~
1 Tex. AgT. Expt. Sta. Bull. 394, p. 32, 1929.
up enough pressure after two or three strokes of the pump to force ou a

continuous stream of spray (Fig. 364). The liquid containers are made
of tin, glass, brass, and copper-bearing sheet steel. The last is adapted
for spraying oils, chemicals of heavy consistency, floor oils, and fly .
repellents.
FIG.
A • B
364.-A, continuous-action hand atomizer; B, continuous-action hand atomizer
designed to spray oils, chemical solutions, and fly repellents.
390. Bucket Sprayers.-The bucket sprayer (Fig. 365) is designed so

that the pump sets insi.de a bucket, and a footrest sets on the ground
outside. The footrest holds and steadies the pump, which pumps only
on the down stroke. A strong continuous flow of
'liquid is forced through the nozzle under pressure
of 50 to 100 pounds.
391. Barrel Sprayers.-This sprayer consists of
a double-acting hand pump connected to a barrel or
tank, which mayor may not be mounted on a
wheelbarrow-like frame. Some type of jet or dash
agitator is provided to keep the spray solution
stirred up. Strainers prevent small particles of
sediment from getting into the hose line or nozzle
(Fig. 366).
392. Knapsack Sprayers.-A 4-gallon capacity
kidney-shaped tank made of galvanized steel or
sheet brass is carried on the back and shoulders of
the operator. A lever handle located at the bot-
tom of the tank makes operation of the ·pump easy
C~ nv~s Po!+ent (Fig. 367). A few strokes of the pump builds up
buckefs agit~+or pressure in the air chamber so that when the noz-
FIG. 365.-Double-acting zle is opened a strong flow of liquid spray is assured.
bucket spray pump.
I{napsack tanks can be equipped with a double-
acting, continuous-spraying, high-pressure, fire-fighting pump (Fig. 368)
that will generate a pressure of 200 pounds and throw a stream of water
60 to 70 feet.
DUSTING "A ND SPRAYING EQUIPMENT 233
393. Compressed-air Sprayers.-This type of sprayer consists of a '
cylindrical tank equipped with an air pump (Fig. 369). T he tank
capacity ranges from 2Yz to 4 gallons. When filled, the tank has enough
space left so t hat a good volume of air can be compressed above the
liquid and expanded sufficiently to for ce the spray out. The pump
FIG. 366.-Barrel sprayer . FIG. 367. -Kna psack spnyer

wit h cutaway section to sh ow p ump
a nd a ir cha mber .
handle locks down and serves as a wrench for tightening and unscrewing
the pump and for carrying t he tank. Good spraying is obtained with
50 t o 80 strokes of the pump. The author has used a high-pressure
spray er of this type made of heavy steel to stand a working air pressure
of 120 pounds (Fig. 370). This sprayer was used t o spray a highly
atomized mist of arsenical poisons r
on prickly pear (cactus) . 1PI. ..... ~==~~:::~pQ
394. Power Sprayers.- Power
sprayers are shown in Figs. 371 and
372. They usually consist of a tank,
pum p, engine, pressure regulator,
hose or pipes, and nozzles. Power F IG. 368 .- Trombone d ou ble-aotiug h ig h-
p ressure spr ay p u mp .
sprayers are designed for spraying
row crops (Fig. 371), fruit trees (F ig. 372), and broadcast crops.
Tanks are constructed of wood or sheet metal that will not corrode.
The capacity ranges from 100 to 400 gallons.
The pump usually has two or three plungers and is styled duplex or
triplex. They must be constructed to st and in some inst ances pressures
up to 650 pounds per square inch and capable of discharging from 5 to
40 gallons per minute.
234 FARM MACHINERY lND EQUIPMENT
Pressure regulators are provided to take care of the pressure created by

the pump when the nozzles are closed. A by~pass valve is automatically
FIG. 369.- Compressed-air sprayer "ith depressed top, which serves as a funnel when filling
the tank.
opened permitting thc liquid to be returned direct to the tank until the
nozzles are opened again (Fig. 373).
395. Stationary Spray Plants.-A stationary spray
plant is an outfit that remains in a fixed place. In
general, the plant con'sists of a large-capacity tank,
a power unit and pump of sufficient capacity to force
spray liquids through underground pipes to all parts
of the orchard. Lacy! enumerates fourteen advan-
tages and only three disadvantages for stationary spray
plants.
396. Nozzles.-Whcn classed according to construc-
tion, there are five principal types of nozzles known as
(1) disk (Fig. 375), (2) regular vermorel (Fig. 374), (3)
modified vermorel (Fig. 374), (4) the self-cleaner (Fig.
375), and (5) Bordeaux (Fig. 375). Different nozzles
are suited to different work, and the pressure used
affects their efficiency. The disk and Bordeaux nozzles
have a larger capacity than the vermorel and self-
cleaner types. 2 The type of spray, whether fine or
>- _ coarse, can be regulated to some extent by size, number,
Fm. 370.-Aus- and angle of the holes in the disk. The Bordeaux nozzle
tralia:n prickly-pear usually makes a flat fan-shaped spray which may be
atorruzer. "
rather coarse and much heavier in the center than at the
edges. High pressure and small orifices help in making a highly atomized
1 Agr. Eng., Vol. 13, No.1, p. 19, 1932.
~ Ohio Agl. Expt. Sta. Bull. 248, p. 791, 1912.
FIG. 371.-Horse-drawn power sprayer spraying potatoes.
FIG. 372.-0rchard sprayer operated by power take-off of tractor.
FIG. 373.-Pressure regulator.

mist spray, a type that is coming into use. French and Crafts l recom-
mend a hole in a concave-grooved disk to secure uniform flat fan-shaped
@
~
@
A B C 0
FlG. 374.-Vermorel spray nozzles : A, regular vermorel nozzle; B, graduate vermorel
nozzle; C, sectional view of B; D, open cup, removal spray disk and packing ring for noz-
zle B.
c
"FIG. 375.-Disk, Bordeaux, and self-cleaner spray nozzles.
FIG. 376.-Nozzle for producing a Bat spre.y.
spray for spraying weeds. The disk is placed in the nozzle with the
concave side out. Where several nozzles are used on a boom the grooves
are aligned so that the fan spray. of every second nozzle meets.
1 Agr. Eng., Vol. 17, No. 3, p. 115, 1936.
PART VIII
HARVESTING MACHINERY
CHAPTER XXII
HAY HARVESTING MACHINERY
Hay hl1rvesting machinery consists of all the tools necessary in the

handling of the hay from the time of cutting until it is placed in the
barn or baled. Machines included are: mowers, tedders, rakes, loaders,
stackers, forks, carriers, and presses. These will be discussed in the
order in which they are used in the process of making hay.
MOWERS
The mower is designed to cut grass for hay; however, it has various
other uses. It is built in various sizes to suit almost any condition. The
size is an influencing factor in determining the type, which may be
one-horse, two-horse regular, or heavy and tractor mowers, the last
named being mostly power-take-off types.
Most horse-drawn mowers are classed, either as a pla1:n lift or a vertical
lift, see Art. 415.
397. Frame.-The frame (Fig. 377) which may be considered the
foundation of the mower, is cast in, one Eiece and rpade of ast iron.
Cores are placed in the mold to provide openings for the main axle,
crank shaft, countershaft, and other parts. Holes are provided for
lubrication. Since it is made of cast iron, it is cheaper than if made
of steel, yet it is compact and strong and adds weight to the mower so
that better traction may be had with the ground at all times. The heavy
cast iron gives a rigid construction and will not allow the shafts and
gears to get out of alignment.
398. Wheels.-All mower wheels are made of cast iron. The average
height is 32 inches. The width of tire will vary from 3 to 4Yz inches.
Upon the fa~e of the tire are lugs to aid traction with the ground for
transmitting power to the cutting mechanism and prevent slipping
sideways (Fig. 378). Wheels equipped with rubber tires can be obtained
on special order (Fig. 379).
The ratchet and pawls ani in the hub of the wheels. The ratchet is
placed on either the inner or the outer end of the hub. One method is
237
238 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT t
about as common as the other. The pawls are fastened loosely or

riveted to a pawl plate which is keyed rigidly to the axle. When the
FIG. 377.-Mower frame showing enclosed gears and automatic lubrication of main oper-
ating parts. Note bea ring and oil seals on axle line and pitman shaft.
tiffing
FIG. 378.-Complete m ower with cutter bar in cutting position
wheel is turned forward, the pawls engage the ratchet teeth and cause
the axle to turn as a unit with the wheel. When the wheel is turned
backward, the pawls slip over the ratchets giving the clicking noise so
HAY HARVESTING MACHINERY
noticeable in the operation of a mower. The ratchet and pawls transmit

the power froll). the wheels to the main axle. T~:lere s hould be at least
three pawls to each hub and no two of them should engage at t he same
time. They should be so arranged that they will engage immediately
when the wheel starts turning. This prevents the mower moving forward
any distance before the knife starts.
FIG. 379.-Mower equipped with rubber tires.
399. Main Axle.-The main axle consists of one long, straight steel
,
shaft extending through the frame from one side to the other. It is
-
provided with keyways for gears and holes for pins to hold the pawl
plate and wheels in place. Its length and size depend Upon the size of
the mower (Fig. 380).
400. Gears.-Practically all mowers have the power transmitted from
the axle to the cutting mechanism by means of gears (Fig. 381). The
FIG. 380.-Mower axle and parts: A, B , roller bearings; C, leather oil seal ; D, pawl and
pawl holder; E, drive gear containing ratchets.
common method of arranging these gears is to have a large internal

or external spur gear keyed to the main axle and placed next to the left
wheel. Then, meshing with the gear is a small spur gea~ which is
placed on the end of the countershaft. The countershaft extends across
a special gear case which is a part of the frame and upon it is placed a
rather large bevel gear which, in turn, meshes with a small bevel gear
on the rear end of the crank shaft. The bevel gears are inclosed in a
gear case to keep dust and grit from collecting on them. There are
only two steps in the transmission of the power through these gears, one
with the spur gears and the other with the bevel gears. This arrangement
will allow the crank wheel to revolve about twenty-five times for each
revolution of the drive wheel.
401. The Clutch. -There are two
methods of arranging the clutch on mow-
ing machines so that the cutting mecha-
nism can be thrown in and out of gear
, whenever desired .
One method is to place the clutch on
the main axle and to the left of the cen-
ter. The clutch gear resembles very
closely a bevel gear with teeth set at an
angle to mesh with another gear of the
same type with the teeth set in the oppo-
site direction. There may be as many as
22 teeth in each of these gears so that,
when they are placed together, there is no
, lost motion. The other arrangement for
FIC. 381.-Gear transmission of a the clutch is to place it on the counter-
mower , showing spur and bevel gears,
clutch, bearings, and bushings. The shaft which is to the rear of the main axle.
bevel gears run in an oil bath, which The clutch on the countershaft has only
is enclosed and dust proof.
about four teeth with which to engage,
and, of course, will allow the mower to move forward slightly before
the knife starts. Figures 381 and 382 show the clutch and gear assemblies
for two mowers.
402. Crank Shaft and Crank Whee1.-The power is transmitted
through the spur gears to the bevel gears on the end of the crank shaft
anQ_ is, in turn, transmitted through
the crank shaft and crank wheel to the 8evel fifearp inion:
I
pitman. The crank wheel is much I
6earcQs('
heavier on one side than on the other,
or it is counterbalanced. The heavy
part of the wheel is opposite that on
which the wrist pin is fastened. As
:.. the crank wheel revolves, it gives a ,
tJri:e gearcmcl
reciprocating motion to the pitman and .« /f'f'er el'7f/al .
it is at this point that the rotary motion FiG. 382.-Mower transmission showing
triple gear speed step-up.
is changed into a reciprocating motion.
The bronze bushings, which serve as a bearing in the lower end of the
crank shaft and on the wrist pin, must be examined frequently for wear.
If there is any considerable amount of play, the bushings should be
HAY HARVESTING MACHINERY 241
replaced with new ones. Whenever this is done the shaft and wrist pin
should also be examined for wear .
. 403. Bearings.-Many mowers have roller bearings on each end of the
main axle, on the countershaft, and sometimes on the rear end of the crank
shaft, but none is ever used on the front end of the crank shaft. At this
point a bronze bushing is used because of the speed and reciprocating
action necessary to operate the pitman and knife. In most cases a bronze
bushing is used on the rear end of the crank shaft because the vibration
of the front end is transmitted to the rear end. A bronze bushing is also
used in the pitman boxing which fits on the wrist pin on the crank wheel.
404. Pitman.- Power is transmitted from the crank wheel to the knife
by a pitman. It is usually made of wood, though steel may be used.
A pitman' box fits over the wrist pin which extends out from the crank
wheel. Figure 383 shows that the pitman box has an extension on one
side with countersunk holes for the
pitman straps to fit into. This con-
nection should be kept reasonably
tight to prevent excessive play but
allow ~he pitman to align itself with
the pitman box. The pitman box
usually has a bronze bushing. The FIG. 383.-Pi tman straps a nd pitman
bearing must be thoroughly lubricated box: A, rivets; B, pi t man straps; C, nut;
D, cotter key; E , grease cup; F , pitman;
at all times. Grease cups, oil cups, G, pitman bolt; H , conical pitman-strap
or p_ressure fittings are provided. connections; I , countersunk connection
for pitman straps; J, bronze bushing.
The pitman is connected to the
knife head by sockets fitting over the knife head ball. This connection
should also be kept tight enough to prevent lost motion between the
straps and the ball. Some pitmans are provided with a spring that auto-
matically takes up the wear and holds the connection tight.
'405. Mower Sizes.-The size of the mower is determined by
the length of the cutter bar or the width of the swath it will cut. If the
mower will cut a swath 5 feet wide, it is called a 5-foot mower. The
average size for two horses is the 5-foot mower. However, the size may
range from 4 to 7 feet. There are some made suitable for one horse,
having a cutter bar only 3,Yz feet in length. Such mowers are good for
small yards, lawns, parks, and orchards. Instead of having poles, as in
the case of the two-horse type, thins are provided.
CUTTER BAR AND ITS PARTS
For the knife to do its work, it must 'have aid from a number of other
parts which go to make up the cutting mechanism (Fig. 384). These
consist of the cutter bar, inside shoe, outside shoe, guards, ledger plates,
wearing plates, knife clips, grass board, and stick.
406. The Cutter Bar.-The cutter bar (Fig. 385) is made of high-grade
steel. All other part.s included in the cutt.ing mechanisms are connected
directly or indirectly to it.
407. The Inside and the Outside
.
"- uJ
o
Shoes.-A large shoe-like runner (Fig .
r 385) supports the inner end of the cutter
<f)
0:: bar when in operation. A removable sole

w
Z is placed underneath the shoe which is
z Z
adjustable to regulate the height of cut.
«
~ The outside shoe (Fig. 385) supports the
I-
outer end of the cutter bar. It also has an
E
g adjustable sole to regulate the height of
...,
'0.
cut. The pointed front part of the outer
'0 shoe acts as a divider, separating the cut
I':
d from the standing grass.
~
( ] 408. The Guards.- The guards serve
..c: to protect the cutting units (Fig. 384) .
'"b' ."!::
L; I!: They also provide a place for the ledger
Itl ~ ~ ~ plates. They divide the material. being
~ Cl . ~~ ~ cut so that the cutting units can do the
~ ~~:::; best work . If any 0 f the guards get out
~ 0:: ~';":;::J
. j « "l:.!:i <>
:J ~ ~.: of alignment, they should be hammered
• l!) ~ ~ 0 back in place. Special grain or pea- or
: c:)" rf]
~ ~ ~ ~ bean-vine lifters are often used to facilitate

~ ~ C!3 ~ the cutting of fallen materiaL
.gd 409. Ledger Plates.-The ledger plates
~ are riveted to the guard (Fig. 386). They
~ form one-half the cutting unit, the knife
~ sections acting as the other half. The
£ edges of the ledger plates are serrated to
prevent stems of grass from slipping oiY
the point of the shears. When the ledger
UJ
o
r
plate becomes worn and dull, it shoul d
<f)
be replaced with a new one. Figure 387
UJ
o shows a special anvil for removing and
III
replacing ledger plates and knife sections.
5o 410. Wearing Plates ..- Wearing plates
(Fig. 384) are necessary to support the
rear side of the knife. When they become
worn, the rear side of the knife will drop down, causing the sections tc
kick up and not make close contact with the ledger plates. Heavy draft
and poor cutting will result from such a condition, The wearing plate
under the knife head should not be overlooked when repairing a mower.
411. Knife Clips.-Knife clips or holders (Fig. 385) are essential to
hold the knife sections down close against the ledger plates. If they
become worn and allow the knife to play up and down, making poor con-
tact with the ledger plates, they should be hammered down. They are
made of either malleable iron or steel.
When seffinq knife
/Jokier down pulilmile
11/hen crligninq quarcls, from under holder *:eep shoe bolfs fighf
pay no aflenlion fopo/nls
\
o/'gt/aro's-line up sur/Crces""',- \
of" quara' plates ....-:: __
To align, strike guara'

017 Ihick portionjusf . _~-e::::- \
\
aheetdofledgerplcrfe \
\ If knife hold@rbinds
' ...._knife, wJlh knifeul7a'er
holder, sfrike hola'er
on f'led surfOfce between
bolfs fa relieve
Staffed holes in weaF
Ing plafesprovicte
Q'o'/t/stment to set
pletfes ClheOid fa fa-Ie
up looseness or wear
FIG. 385.-Complete mower cutter bar, with instructions for adjustment of parts.
412. Grass Board and Stick.-These parts are attached to the outer
shoe. The board with a yielding spring connection angles back away
from the uncut grass. Its purpose is to divide and rake away the cut from
the uncut grass, to give a clean place for the inside shoe on the next
£)0 nof pound down
lips of' guards-c/Jokinq
wi/lresult - ---- - ---
rear
70 insure a Shear Knife holdermllsf

cuf,pointoTseclion/ -- .... _ fi/downsnug()n
musfsefon/edger--, ,-~-; ---- knife /Jufwifh()uf
plcrte «;;;;:-""'"'-~~~F binding
I /
Sef wearing plates ahead J/ Wrong
if there is foomudl ';t>;c>y"
In necKs orgl/ards {'or
knife /Jack
FIG. 386.-Right and wrong way for a mower knife to fit and operate ill the guards.
round. For long a.nd ta.ngled material a rotary grass board can be secured
that will leave a cleaner swath than the regular type.
413. Alignment of Cutter Bar.-To do the best work with a mowing
machine, it is essential that the center of the pitman box, the knife head,
and the outer end of the knife bar be in a straight line when operating.
When not in operation, however, the outer end of the bar, when in
cutting position, should be a little in advance of the inner end to offset the
backward strain produced by the pressure of the cutting and to permit
the knife and pitman to run in a straight line. This setting is called lead.
The outer end of the bar should be
ahead of the inner end 1 to I X inches on
4Y2-foot mowers; I X to lY2 inches on
5-foot mowers; and lY2 to 1% inches
on the 6- and 7-foot sizes.
Figure 388 shows a method of meas-
uring to determine the proper lead for
the cutter bar.
The inset in Fig. 388 shows bow an
eccentric bushing can be used to adjust
the lead for a cutter bar.
414. Registration.- This means that
FIG. 387.-Special anvil for remov- each section of the knife should center
ing and replacing ledger plates and with the center of, each guard, when the
knife sections. knife is at the extreme end of its in-and-
out strokes (Fig. 385). Failure to register is a very common trouble
in mowers and should be looked for often. The results of failing
to register are: an uneven job of cutting, and an uneven load on the entire
mower, heavier draft, and, often, clogging of the knife. When an attempt
FIG. 388.-Illustrating how to measure the lead of a cutter bar for proper a[jgrunent.
Point C should be from 1 to IX inches ahead of points A and B. Points D. E. and F show
a cutter bar with too much lag.
is made to align the cutter har by lengthening or shortening the drag bar,
it may, at the same time, disturb the registration of the knife sections
with 'the guards. To adjust registration, the whole cutter bar, including
the inside and outside shoes, is moved in or out.
415. Cutter-bar Lifts.- There are two ways of raising the cutter bar
to a vertical position. If the operator is required to get off the seat and
take hold of the outer end of the cutter bar and lift it up and fasten it in a
vertical position, it is called a plain or regular lift.
The popular type of lift is where the operator remains in the seat and,
with a lever, raises the cutter bar to a vertical position. When this can
be done, it is called a vertical lift. The cutting mechanism is automatically
thrown out of gear as the bar is raised. It is also thrown in gear when
the bar is lowered. It is more convenient for use in stumpy ground,
orchards, and where there are a number of obstructions. All mowers are
provided ·with a foot lift so that the cutter bar can be raised for turning
at qorners and lifting the bar over very low obstructions.
SPECIAL ATTACHMENTS
The mowing machine is often required to cut under difficult conditions

and to perform special work. Attachments to facilitate doing such jobs
are mentioned briefly
FIG. 389.-Bunching attachment.
416. The Bunching Attachment.-This attachment consists of a

number of finger-like bars extending to the rear of the cutter bar and
having a special hood-like arrangement that attaches at each side and
around the rear ends of the fingers (Fig. 389). This hood is allowed to
remain down until quite a bunch of hay has been collected and then is
lifted by a foot lever, allowing the bunch of hay to slide off the bars.
417. The Reaping Attachment.-This attachment is used mainly for
cutting clover for seed. It has an extra seat placed over the right wheel
so that the operator can be closer to the cutter bar in order that he may
use a rake to rake the clover off in bunches from a small wooden platform
made out of wooden slats (Fig. 390).
418. Grain, Pea, and Bean Lifters.-These lifters consist of guards
which are attached over the regular guards projecting to the front quite
a distance, so that pea and bean vines can be lifted, allowing the cutter
bar to slide underneath and cut off the stems below the heads (Fig. 391).
419. Weed Attachment.-This attachment consists of a wheel
placed at the outer end of the cutter bar to carry it some 6 to 12 inches off
the ground, so that the weeds may be cut without undue strain upon the
mower parts.
420. Weed and Brush Bars.-These bars are constructed with

stub gnards instead of the long sharp-pointed guards used for cutting
grass. Extra-heavy knives are also used with them.
FIG. 390.-Reaping attachment for mower,
421. Windrowing Attachment.-The windrowing attachment con-

sists of a number of bars attached to the cutter bar, curved upward at
FIG. 391.-Pick-up guards and center windrow used in harvesting canning peas.
the rear end. The bars are about 3 feet in length at the outer end and
gradually increase in length toward the inner end where they are some
8 feet long (Fig. 392). The hay is allowed to slide to the side into a
FIG. 392.-Side-delivery windrowing attachment.
windrow. Some of these attachments can be folded to allow bunching.

The windrow attachment is especially adapted for harvesting flax, clover,
alfalfa, peas, and other crops.
422. Bermuda-grass-cutter Bar.-Another special type of cutter bar

being made has twice as many guards as on the regular type. These
guards are narrow, having ledger plates on each guard, and are so placed
that the knife, in making an in or out stroke, passes· through two guards
.J
FIG. 393.-Lespedeza bar -and special pan for receiving the seed that are shelled in the proc-
ess of cutting.
instead of one. It is claimed that this arrangement is effective in cutting

Bermuda grass which becomes very closely matted together.
423. Lespedeza Bar.-Figure 393 shows a cutter bar equipped with
special narrow guards, a seed screen, and a pan to receive the seed.
424. Tongue Truck.- Tongue trucks on a mower take the weight of
the tongue off the team, pr.event whipping of the tongue on rough ground,
and reduce side draft (Fig. 394).
MOWER TROUBLES
425. Draft.-Excessive draft on
a mower may be caused by:
1. Dull knives.
2. Worn ledger plates.
3. Poor lubrication.
4. Non-alignment of cutter bar.
5. Non-registration.
Duffee, of the University of FIG. 394.-Tongue truck for mowers.

Wisconsin, found in his experiments
on the draft of mowers under field conditions that the condition of the
cutting parts was the most important factor. Table XIII shows the effect
of dull and sharp knives and dull and sharp ledger plates.
A study of the table shows that when the knives were dull and the
ledger plates in poor adjustment, draft was increased 30 to 35 per cent.
yery little was gained by sharpening the knife and leaving the ledger
TABLE XIII.-RESULTS OF D RAFT TESTS ON A 5-FOOT MOWER TO DETERMINE THE

EFFECT OF SHARP AND D ULL KNIVES AND SHARP AND DULL GUARDS i
Horse-
Total Increased Per Speed power
Condition of cutter bar draft, draft, cent in miles required
pounds pounds increase per hour to pull
mower
Bar in first-class condition, new and

sharp .. ..... . . .. . ...... . . .... .. 297 ... .... 2.5 1.98
Bar in very pOOl' condition, guards
dull, wearing plates worn, knife
fairly sharp .................... 396 99 33 .3 2 .5 2 .64
Bar in good condition, except knife •
one-quarter dulled ........ ..... . 305 8 2.7 2.5 2.03
Bar in good condition, except knife
one-half dulled ..... .. .... .. . ... 318 21 7 .1 2.5 2.12
three-quarters dulled ........ . . .. 367 70 23.6 2.5 2.45
fully dulled .. . . .... .. ... ...... . 398 101 34.0 2.5 2 .66
1 "Farm Mechanics," p. 12, 1921.
plate in poor adjustment. These tests show the advantage of the sharp-
ened knife and a properly adjusted cutter bar, with ledger plates in good
condition. Figure 395 shows a
Gauge
special knife grinder.
426. Side Draft.-Side draft on
mowers is a tendency for the ma-
chine to pull around towards "the
side on which the cutter bar is
placed. An extra long cutter bar
will sometimes, within itself, cause
side draft due to the long leverage
to the side; the average small
FIG. 395 .-Kn.ife grinder that can be mower may also give a certain
operated with hand or foot power, electric amount of side draft. In these
motor, or gas engine.
mowers it is usually caused by the
failure to cut clean, which allows the grass to pull under and the cutter bar
to slide over without cutting the grass at all. If the knife or ledger plates
become dull, hard cutting will result, which, at the same time, will cause
considerable side draft; but if the mow.cr is properly adjusted and all parts
in good condition, there should be very little side draft.
427. Breaking of Knives.-A common trouble in mowers is that of
breaking the knives at a point where the knife-head strap ends. This
trouble may be caused by badly worn knife-head holders on the inside
shoe, by non-alignment, and by undue play in the pitman box bearings.

When the inside shoe parts become badly worn, the knife is allowed to
play up and down as the pitman draws and pushes it backward and
forward. As the pitman draws the knife in, it naturally pulls the head
up and when it pushes it out, the pressure is down against the plate. If
there is much wear at this point, therefore, the knife head will have con-
siderable play up and down and will, in time, break the knife bar.
Non-alignment is often considered another cause for breaking the
knife because it is working at an angle.
When the pitman box bearing becomes worn, allowing considerable
play within the bearing, there will be a decided jerk and pounding as the
knife reaches the end of its out-and-in strokes. This will weaken the
knife bar and finally break it.
428. Lost Motion.-After a mower has been used for some length of
time, lost motion may occur in the parts transmitting power from the
main wheel to the knife. The machine may be started forward and
moved several inches without the knife starting. The places where lost
motion may develop are as follows:
1. In the hubs of the wheels where the pawls engage the ratchet. ,
2. In the clutch.
3. The various gears.
4. In the pitman wheel bearings.
5. At the knife head. .
The parts involved should be examined frequently and steps taken to

eliminate as much lost motion as possible.
429. Acres Cut per Day.- The acres cut per day will naturally be
influenced by several factors, such as: material being cut, size of machine,
condition of machine, and speed.
The" Extension Service Handbook" 1 gives the duty of a mower for a
lO-hour day as 1.68 acres per foot of width of cut. It also gives 2.50 feet
as the most usual width per horse.
A good day's work with a 7'-foot machine is 13 to 15 acres per day. 2
With a 5-foot mower, the cost per acre for man and horse labor will be
around 50 cents.
430. Power Mowers. -The power mower is a specially designed
attachment for general purpose tractors (Fig. 396). The cutting parts
are practically of the same construction and require the same care and
adjustments as do horse-drawn mowers. Power for operating the knife is
transmitted from the power take-off to the pitman through a drive shaft.
1 "Extension Service Handbook on Agriculture and Home Economics," U. S. Dept.
!gr., 1926.
! U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 943, p . 8, 1921.
250 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMEN'l'
The speed of the drive shaft is reduced by either gears, sprocket and
chain, or V;belts. The speed of the knife may be in proportion to the
,.-
FIG. 396.-Mowing hay with tractor mower attachment dri\"m from power take-off.
tra\'el of the tractor or it may be in proportioll to the engine speed.

Usually a slip clutch in the power line releases automatically when the
FIG. 397.-Power mower and trailer mowcr attached to general purpose tractor.
knife cllokes or the cutting becomes too heavy. If the cutter bar strikes
an obstruction, it will swing back and prevent damage to the mower.
431. Trailer Mower.-The trailer mower is a ground-driven mower
designed for use behind tractors. It can be used singly, in series, Of
as a trailer behind a power mower, as shown in Fig. 397. The whole
machine is of extra-heavy construction and has special gears that permit
efficient operation at tractor speeds.
Safety spring-release hitches (Fig.
398) - are provided to release the
mower from the tractor if an
FIG. 398. -Cutaway view of spring-
obstruction is hit. release safety hitch for mowers. The
spring compresses, permitting the latch rod
HAY TEDDERS to disengage and release mower from
tractor.
Where a heavy growth of hay is
cut, it will be so thick in the swath that the upper leaves and stems
which are exposed to light and the air will cure while the hay underneath
will still be green. To secure uniform curing of the hay, it is necessary
that it be stirred so that the hay will be left in such condition that it
will cure uniformly from the top to the bottom.
432. The Tedder.-This machine consists of a wide frame mounted
on wheels somewhat on the order of a sulky hay rake, but instead of
having a straight rake, as in the case of the dump rake, the tedder is pro-
vided with forks (Fig. 399). The number of forks may vary from aix to
FIG. 399.-Hay tedder.
eight according to the width of the machine. These forks are attached
to a crank shaft which has the crank throws arranged irregularly so that
only two or three of the forks are engaging the mown hay at the same
time. The forks are made of spring-steel teeth and are attached to fork
arms having a spring trip, so that if the fork gets in behind an obstruc-
tion, it will break back relieving the strain on the arm, shaft, and driving
mechanism. The crank shaft is placed to the rear of the frame and the
wheels, and extends out to each side beyond the wheels, providing a place
for the attachment of the fotk outside of the wheels. This is done so
that it will not be necessary to run the wheels on the hay that has already
been tedded, thereby mashing it down and undoing the work the machine
has done.
There are two methods of transmitting the power from the wheels to
the shaft. Some of the tedders have the shaft in one piece, while in
others it is divided in the center. If it is of one piece, it is very likely to
be driven by gear or by sprocket and chain from the main axle, but if the
shaft is divided in the center each half is run by gear or by sprocket
and chain taken directly from the hub of each wheel. Then, each wheel
is called upon to run one-half of the machine.
HAY RAKES
Hay rakes may be classified as follows:
1. Windrows rakes:
1. Dump types:
a. Hand dump.
b. Power dump.
2. Side-delivery types:
a. Cylinder.
b. Fork.
II. Bunching or sweep rakes:
1. Side-hitch type:
a. Two wheel.
b. Three wheel.
2. Rear-hitch type:
a. Three wheel.
b. Four wheel.
3. Tractor sweep rakes.
433. Dump Rakes.-This type of rake, shown in Fig. 400, is also

known as a sulky hay rake. The principal difference between a hand rake
and a power-dump rake is that with the former the operator must furnish
the power for lifting the teeth to
dump the hay, while in the latter the
operator merely presses a small foot
lever which engages pawls in t he hubs
of the wheels. Then, as the rake is
drawn forward, the power furnished
FIG. 400.- Power-duIDp hay rake.
by the team lifts the teeth. The
pawls are automatically released when
the teeth have been raised. Specially constructed dump rakes may be
had for use in orchards to rake up the branches or trimmings after pruning.
434. Side-delivery Rakes.-The use of hay loaders created a demand
for a hay rake that would make a loose, fluffy, continuous windrow.
Then too, many haymakers are raking the hay into windrows directly
after it is cut. Such windrows must necessarily be loose to allow the hay
to cure. The side-delivery r-ake was developed to take care of this
demand. There are two types of these rakes, namely, the cylinder and
the fork types.
The cylinder type is shown in Fig. 401. It consists of a cylinder of
three rake bars placed at an angle of about 45 degrees with the direction
TOOTH-AD)lTSTING
FRONT LIFTING
UARLIFTING
FIG. 401.-Cylinder-type side-delivery h ay r ake.
of travel. The delivery is made to the left so that the direction of travel
is the sam e as that of the mower. This makes the rake t eeth work against
the heads of the hay, rolling them to the inside of the windrow. The more
juicy stems are left on the outside. Some side-delivery rakes are con-
FIG. 402. -Cylinder-type side-delivery h ay r a ke in operation.
structed so that the rotation of the cylinder can be reversed and the rake
be made to do the work of a hay tedder.
The fork type of side-delivery rake differs from the cylinder type, since
it has a number of large forks placed on an irregular bent shaft which
allows the forks to follow one another in their work of raking hay.
254 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMEN'l'
435. Bunching or Sweep Rakes.-For the rapid handling of the hay

from the windrow to the baling press or stack, a bunching or sweep rake,
sometimes called a buck, or bull rake is a labor and tjme saver, as well as a
cost-reducing tool. As indicated above, there are several kinds of sweep
rakes.
The side-hitch sweep rake has one horse hitched on each side of the
machine beside the teeth. The teeth are 7 or 8 feet in length placed
FIG. 403.-8ide-hitch three-wheel FIG. 404.-Rear-hitch four-wheel

sweep rake. sweep rake.
about 1 foot apart, and are made of wood. These long teeth are lowered
upon the ground and slide under the hay until a load bas been collected.
Then, in most cases, the teeth and hay are raised off the ground, the whole
weight being carried on the wheels.
T he two-wheel type allows the operator to slide the seat bac1..-ward and
forward to help balance the rake teeth and the load.
The three-wheel type, shown in Fig. 403, has the seat mounted on a
rear truck consisting of one wheel which castors in any direction. A lever
is provided to raise and lower the teeth.
FIG. 405.- Tractor sweep rake.
The 1'ear-hitch sweep rake has the team hitched back of the rake head .
The rear truck supporting the seat and eveners may have one or two
castoring wheels. Figure 404 shows a four-wheel rear-hitch type. The
horses are hitched at the real', one on each side of the truck.
The rear-hitch sweep rake is better suited for heavy hay and is so
constructed that it will pass over small irrigation ditches without diffi~ulty.
However, some haymakers prefer the side-hitch type for rough ground.
Many of tl}e rear-hitch sweep rakes are provided with power lifting
devices so that the operator is not required to lift the rake teeth and hay
entirely by hand levers; after the teeth have been raised by the power
device, they are automatically locked in place so that the hay can be
carried some distance.
436. Tractor Sweep Rakes.-Sweep-rake teeth are mounted on the
front of the tractor (Fig. 405). The raising and lowering of the teeth are
operated by power from the tractor.
HAY LOADERS
To facilitate the rapid handling of hay and to eliminate a great deal of
hand and manual labor, the hay loader was brought out for taking the
hay either out of the windrow or directly out of the swath and elevating
it up onto the wagon.
There are two general types of hay loaders: the cylinder, which may be
single or double, and the rake-bar or fo rk type. These machines are
attached to the rear of the wagon
and driven over the windrow or along
the swath from which they gather
the hay, loading it onto the wagon.
Loaders may be had with or with-
out a forecarriage. If no forecar-
riage is used, the machine is
balanced on two drive wheels and
the front part is carried by the rear
axle of the wagon.
It is claimed that a hay loader,l
FIG. 406.-Fork-type hay loader.
under ordinary conditions, will in-
crease the capacity of a crew about 30 per cent over that of the same
crew pitching the load by hand forks.
437. Fork Loader.-The loader shown in Fig. 406 is often called a
swath loader because it is not necessary to rake the hay before using the
machine. It will rake and load hay all in the same operation. It "viil,
however, do good loading from the windrow. This loader has two sets of
wooden bars operated alternately by a cranking motion from the drive
wheels. At the end of each of the wooden bars are claw-like rakes that
gather the hay from the windrow or swath, pulling it up on a slatted
inclined apron which extends up over the rear of the wagon or rack. At
in tervals along each of these bars are flexible-wire teeth which extend down-
ward to catch the hay and move it up the incline as the bars are worked
backward and upward. While one set of these rake bars are gathering
the hay from the ground and pushing that already gathered up the incline,
the other set is raised upon its crank above the hay and moved back down
for a new movement upward. The hay is pushed little by little up the
incline until it falls on the load.
I MCCLURE, H. B., "Ha.y Making," U. S . Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 943, p. 16, 1921.
438. Cylinder Hay Loader.-This type of loader shown in Fig. 407,

is often known as the windrow loader, endLess apron, eLevator, belt, web,
or drum type, so-called because of the cylinder for gathering the hay and
the elevator for elevating it.
FIG. 407.-Cylinder hay loader with gleaning cylinder attached.
The cylinder consists of a number of shafts rigidly fixed and placed an

equal distance apart around the circumference of the cylinder head .
Upon each of these shafts are tine-like teeth having a peculiar curve and
given three or four turns around the
shaft for flexibility. This cylinder
revolves in the same direction that the
drive' wheels are revolving, and the
teeth have an action similar to that of
an ordinary hand pitchfork, bringing
the hay up and over from the rear,
depositing it on the web-slatted apron,
which elevates it on to the wagon.
The elevator or apron is made up o.
wooden slats placed about 12 inches
apart, connected by strands of rope,
FIG. 408.-This illustration shows
how the cylinder-type hay loader picks
and driven by chains at either end from
up hay and deposits it on the elevating the main drive wheel below.
carrier. When the loader is attached to the
rear axle of the wagon, there should be an automatic release which
can be operated from the top of the load by pulling a trip rope, thus sav-
ing time by not having to get down off the load and unhook the loader.
439. Gleaning Cylinder.-To make sure that the hay is raked clean
from the windrow, another cylinder is attached to the rear of the main
raking cylinder to act as a gleaner. It may be called a double-cylinder
loader (Fig. 407). This auxiliary cylinder revolves in a direction opposite
to that of the main cylinder and does a good job of gleaning the hay left
by the main cylinder.
440. Combination Cylinder and Rake-bar Loader.-This hay loader
combines the principles of both the cylinder and the fork or rake-bar
loaders. It retains the rake bars for elevating the hay but makes use
of a cylinder for picking up the hay from the windrow (Fig. 409). The
tight bottom prevents loss of shattered leaves, and the rake bars permit
satisfactory loading in windy weather.
FIG. 409.-Combination cylinder and rake-bar hay loader in operation.
441. Hay Racks.-For hauling hay to the barn or stack, special hay
wagons or racks are necessary. It is not possible to use the ordinary
wagon box for hauling a great amount of hay because only a small quan-
tity can be loaded on. For this reason a frame is built to set on
the wagon gears. It extends to the side over the wheels and is much
longer than that of the ordinary wagon box. At each end of this rack
are placed frames which are inclined outward. Such frames will accom-
modate twice as much hay as can be put on an ordinary wagon box. This
type of hayra-ck is used to a considerable extent in all the hay sections.
They either can be bought commercially, or can be built locally. Some
of these racks have boards or slats on the sides for the hauling of short hay
where there is considerable wind.
There is a second type of hay rack which, instead of being pJaced on an
ordinary wagon gear, is mounted on wheels and is often called a hay
truck. The truck wheels are around 15 inches in diameter, so that the
whole outfit is rather low. Some of these types of trucks have four
wheels, while others have only two placed near the center so that the truck
balances. A series of trucks can be attached together, each supporting
the other. Such trucks are useful in sections of the country where there
is heavy rainfall. The hay can be thrown on the trucks before it is cured
and run under a shed out of the rain or a tarpaulin can be thrown over it
to protect the hay.
HAY STACKERS
In some sections hay is stacked in the field rather than stored in the
barn. Many types of stackers are built both commercially and locally.
442. Overshot Stacker.-The overshot stackers (Fig. 410) are
so-called because the hay is carried up and over the stacker frame and
FIG. 410.-0vershot high-lift hay stacker, showing low- and high-Ijft. positions.
delivered to the stack in very much the same way as the average ma"tl
handles the pitchfork. The hay is brought up by the sweep rake; the
stacker teeth are lowered to the ground and the rake teeth are driven with
. their load of hay to lap upon those of the stacker teeth. The sweep rake
is then backed off, leaving the hay upon the stacker teeth where it can be
elevated to the stack 'without any further trouble or handling. After
the stack has become quite high, it is necessary that a considerable amount
of hay be handled by hand to get it in position after being placed on the
stack. This type of stacker may have a rigid frame extending from the
side next to the stack out to the stacker teeth, the whole of which is raised
rigidly by means of ropes and pul1eys. Another method is to have an
incline which may be mounted upon wheels or on a wagon gear for elevat-
ing the stacker teeth. The stacker should be provided with springs or
FIG. 411.-Swinging hay stacker.
weights to counterbaLance the weight of the stacker head while the latter
is returning to the ground. This allows the team to be backed as rapidly
as they wilt without having to consider the return of the stacker head.
443. The Swinging Stacker.-This stacker (Fig. 411) is sometimes
known as the swing ar-ound stacker.
Ip.stead of throwing the hay directly
overhead it is raised and swung
around to th~ side, where it is dropped
at any place desired. This is quite
an advantage over the overshot
stacker. It reduces the amount of
work required on the stack. The
stacking head receives the hay from
the sweep rake in the same manner
as that of the overshot stacker. This
type of . stacker is also advantageous FIG. 412.-Combination sweep rake and
stacker.
where there is considerable wind,
which would interfere with that of the overshot type.
When it is desired that the load be dropped, a trip lever is pulled which
allows the teeth to be tipped downward, dropping the hay in the desired
place. When beginning the stack, it is necessary to elevate the hay only a
few feet and, as the stack increases in height, the load can be hoisted to a
corresponding hcight.
444. The Combination Stacker. ~The combination stacker (Fig. 412)
consists of both a sweep rake and a stacker combined. It is used to take
the hay from the windrow or cock and place it directly on the stack.
The advantage over the overhead stacker is that the hay can be dropped
at any convenient place on th.e stack.
445. The Cable Stacker.-The cable stacker, shown in Fig. 413,
consists of two sets of two poles bolted together at the top and spread
out at the bottom to form a framework for the cable to be stretched
over and between. The cable forms a carrier track so that the hay can
be carried to any place across the top of the stack. This is a similar
FIG. 413.-Cable hay stacker.

arrangement to what is had in the barn. Any height of stack can be
built. The only limiting factor is the length of the poles used.
446. Derrick Stacker.-Such stackers may consist of one or two
poles. The single-pole stacking outfit may have the pole placed in a
leaning position so that the upper end will be above the stack. The
pole can be set vertically with a cross-arm at the top extending out to
the side from 'which the forks are suspended for elevating the hay. In
this type, it is only necessary to turn the pole or derrick through 180
degrees to handle the hay. When turned away from the· stack, it is in
position to take the load and, when elevated, it is swung around in a
semicircle over the stack where it is dumped.
The leaning type has an advantage over that of the perpendicular
pole, in that it can be swtmg to any position along the stack. This
will eliminate, largely, the handling of the hay on top of the stack.
447. The Tripod Stacker.-This stacker is a very simple arrangement
consisting of three poles arranged to form a tripod and supporting
each other; guy wires are not necessary to hold the poles in place. A
pulley is suspended from the top, where the poles are bolted together,
for the elevation of the hay.
HAY PRESSES
Where hay is being grown for commercial purposes and has to be

shipped, it should ~lways be baled so that as much as possible can be
put into the average railway car. Many hay growers prefer to bale
their hay and store it away in the barn to conserve the space. Hay
presses may be divided into two classes according to the power used;
horse presses which may be one- or two-horse, and the power presses
which have power in the form of a gas engine mounted on the frame, or
the power supplied from other sources by means of a belt.
448. Horse Presses.- When horse power is used, no matter whether
it be the one- or two-horse type of press, the horses are hitched to a
long lever pole called a sweep and are required to travel in a circle to •
operate the compressing mechanism (Fig. 414). Some balers have long
FIG. 414.-A one-horse pull-type hay press ready for use.
pitmans and operate by pushing the hay into a box. These are called
push plunger presses. Others accomplish the same results by pulling
and are called pull plunger presses. It is considered that the pulling
type is better; it eliminates quite a bit of heavy construction . Some
horse balers may have two strokes of the compressing mechanism to
one complete round of the team, while others may have as many as
three. The more strokes to the round, the more rapid the baling process
will be. Many of these small horse-power presses are fed by hand, the
hay being pressed down into the compressing chamber by hand power.
Others have an arrangement where the power is supplied by the horses
and have a special arm and feeder head to press the hay down into the box.
~long with the self-feeder device there should be a t'ucker which prevents
the bale from having what is known as tails.
449. Power Presses.- Presses that are run by engines are built
much heavier than the horse presses (Fig. 415). Th.e power presses
are divided into those which have the power mounted on the frame
'n the. form of a gas engine to furnish the power, and those operated by
power not on the frame, such as a tractor. An average 6-horsepower
engine will do good work in operating a hay baler. If a machine is
purchased with the motor power mounted on the frame, it should be
' nvestigated to see if the gas engine can be removed to be used at other
jobs when not required to run the hay press. All power presses compress
the hu.y by the use of a pitman and plunger head. The power from the
engine to the press is usually transmitted by a belt.
460. Self-feeder.-AH power presses are provided with self-feeding
devices. These are operated mechanically and are'so timed that when
the plunger is retarded, the feeder is forcing the hay down into the
baling chamber. As the plunger comes back, the feeder is raised up
out of the way and remains up long enough for a fresh supply of hay
to be pitched into the hopper .. The speed of the engine and the gearing
will determine the number of strokes per minute. Most presses should
operate with some 17 to 28 strokes per minute. All presses should have
a tucking device to fold over the tails and allow them to be pressed into
the bale by the next stroke of the plunger.
FOLDING
FIG. 415.-Power hay press.
461. Block Setter.-Many presses are now equipped with a special

block-setting device so that it is not necessary for the operator t risk
his fingers or his hand in placing the block (Fig. 415).
The block is placed in a special container and when it is desired
that a new block be set, this container is brought forward by a lever
and the feeding device, on its downward stroke, strikes the block on
top, shoving it automatically into place. Other presses may have a
special retainer which is tripped by pressing a button, thus setting the
block automatically. .
All feeder heads should be equipped with safety devices to prevent
breaking the feeder arms in case the feeder head should catch on an
obstruction on its downward stroke. Some have an automatic release
clutch ; others have large springs to allow the feeder arms to give without
breaking them.
452. Press Sizes.- The size of the press is given according to the
size of bale made. The more common sizes are: 14 by 18 inches, 16 by
18 inches, and 18 by 22 inches. The average length of the bale is• around
36 inches.
463. Capacity of a Press.-In considering the capacity of a hay press
of any kind, it is well to consider things, other than that of the press
itself, such as (1) the kind of hay, (2) condition of the hay, (3) the number
of strokes at which the press runs, (4) the experience and ability of the
crew, (5) density of bales desired, (6) the number of resettings that will
have to be made, and (7) the size of the bale. All of these things con-
sidered collectively will determine to a certain extent the number of
bales or tonnage a press may put out in a day's time.
454. Density of Bales.-The density of the bales is regulated by
closing the outlet to such an extent that it will be harder for the com-
pressed hay to be forced out. Naturally, the greater the force required to
move the hay out of the baling chamber, the greater the density will
be, and the more pounds per cubic foot.
455. Windrow Pick-up Hay Baler.-The pick-up baler is a regular
power hay baler with a pick-up and cross-conveyor feeder attachment
(Fig. 416). The pick-up attachment is a modification of the windrow
FIG. 416.-Windrow pick-up h ay baler operated by auxiliary gas engine mounted on the
press .
pick-up attachment for combine harvester tlireshers. The hay pick-up

consists of a pick-up cylinder, an elevating unit of either canvas or
lugged chaini;!, and a cross-conveyor to receive the hay from the elevator
and carry it to the self-feeder. The tight-bottom elevator prevents
the loss of tender leaves.
Power for operating the baler or press and cross-conveyor is furnished
either by the power take-off tractor (Fig. 417) or by an engine mounted on
the press (Fig. 416) . The pick,.up and elevating unit is ground driven so
that the hay is gathered in at the same rate of speed as the forward travel
of the machine.
The cross-conveyor is operated as a unit with the press, independent
of the elevator, and can be started, stopped, or reversed by a lever that
can be kicked over with the foot or operated by hand. Thus, the cross-
conveyor can be stopped to drop in the division blocks, and the machine
can be used as a stationary baler without operating the pick-up cylinder
and elevator.
264 FARM M ACHINERY AND EQUIPMEN1'
A crew of from two to four men, depending on the yield of hay, is

required to operate a pick-up baler. One man drives the tractor, two men
tie out the bales, and in heavy hay one man assists the feeding mechanism.
A crew of this size can average baling two to three tons per hour, the
Clutch lever for ,Feeder head

\
cross conveyor-
Feeder arm
/ / ;ress chamber ~!::.;Ij~....",. 0'/inciric drum

'-··Platform for fyers , - - - - Pick-up teeth
FIG. 4 17.- Windrow pick-up hay ba ler oper ated by power take-off of tractor .
tonnage baled fluctuating with the yield. The capacity of the machine
largely depends upon two factors ; namely, (1) a windrow large enough to
furnish hay for capacity operation and (2) the skill of the operators. l
FIG. 418.-Arrangement for unloading h ay at center of barn with grapple fork .
Figuring l/:tbor, tractor charge, and depreciation the estimated cost of

baling hay with the windrow pick-up baler averaged $3.45 per hour.
When baling 1.59 tons per hour the cost per ton was $2.17, but when
2.75 tons were baled per hour the cost was reduced to $1.42 per ton.
1 Iowa Agr. Expt. Sta. Butt 322, p. 206, 1934.

BARN EQUIPMENT
Where loose hay is stored in barns, special equipment for handling
it is of great help. There should be a"" track suspended at the peak of
the roof as near the rafters as possible. A carrier truck runs along this
FIG. 419.-Arrangement for unloading h a y a t end of barn with double-harpoon fork.
34" INCH TINES

2+ INCHESAPART ~
FIG. 420. FIG. 421.-Double-har- FIG. 422. -Six-tine grapple fork , open .
Single-har- po on fork .
poon hay-
fork.
track to allow the hay to be carried to any part through the center of
the barn. Figure 418 shows an arrangement for unloading hay at the
middle of the barn while Fig. 419 shows an arrangement for taking the
hay in at one end. The hay is elevated by a system of ropes and pulleys.
Usually a team of horses furnishes the power for lifting the load.
456. H ayforks.-The types of hayforks and slings, for unloading hay

from the wagon to place it on the stack or in the barn, differ in the manner
in which they take hold of the hay. There are usually three kinds of
forks; namely, the single-harpoon, the double-harpoon, and the grapple
fork.
FIG. 423.-Center-trip hay sling.
The single-harpoon fork (Fig. 420) consists of a single long iron fork
with a barb on the end, which, when the bar is being forced into the
hay, forms part of the point, making it easier to force the fork down.
When it has been forced to the required depth, a lever arrangement
pulls this barb to the side, causing a considerable amount of hay to
cling to the fork which can be elevated to the stack or
carried inside the barn.
Double-hm'poon forks, instead of having one spear-like
prong, have two prongs placed some two feet apart (Fig.
421). This type of fork is more popular than the single
harpoon because it will retain more hay upon it.
The grapple fork (Fig. 422) resembles, in a general way,
a pair of ice tongs. There are two or three teeth to each
side which open out when forced into the hay and, as
FIG. 424.- power is applied to the central point, they act in a manner
Double lock for similar to that of jaws, clamping a considerable amount of
hay sling.
hay in the teeth. This is a very useful type in unloading
loose straw or grain.
Another device for taking the hay . from the wagon is the sling
(Fig. 423). In the loading of the hay on the wagon rack, the first sling is
placed on the bottom, a quantity of hay placed on it, as much as can
be elevated at one time, then, another sling is placed on top of this
hay, and so on until the wagon is completely loaded. Then, at the
barn the ends of these slings are brought together and elevated into the
barn or on the stack. When it is ready to be dropped, the sling is
tripped ill the middle, allowing the ends to swing free.
CHAPTER XXIII
GRAIN HARVESTING MACHINERY

GRAIN BINDERS
The grain binder must be built comparatively light, but strong so

that it can be drawn over soft mellow soils without affecting the operation
of the machine. The average grain binder with all attachments and
the weight of the operator added will usually weigh around 1,500 to
2,000 pounds.
There is very little difference in the binders made by the various
manufacturing concerns; however, they may be classified as horse-drawn
and tractor-power take-off types. The size of a binder is determined
by the width of the swath it will cut. Horse-drawn binders range from
6 to 8 feet, while tractor binders usually cut a 10-foot swath.
467. Main Wheel.- The grain binder is supported at three different
points; namely, by the main wheel, the grain wheel, and, if drawn by
FIG. 425.-Binder main wheel showing lugs, FIG. 426.-Main wheel showing roller bea.r-
driving sprocket and raising mechanism. ings at B, and ball-thrust bearings at A.
horses, the tongue truck in front; if tractor drawn, the weight in front
is supported by the tractor. Of these three points, the main wheel
must carry fully 80 per cent of the entire weight of the machine. A
wheel when required to carry a load ranging from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds
must necessarily be built very strong. The main wheel (Fig. 425) is
built entirely of steel; the rim or tire is rolled from one piece of steel with
the ends welded together. The edges of the tire are turned inward to
267
268 FARM MACHiNERY AND EQUIPMENT
further strengthen it. Spokes are riveted to both the hub and the tire.
The tire end has a shoulder resting against the inner side of the tire.
The lugs are placed at an angle across the tire and set rather high to
give the proper amount of traction necessary to furnish power to operate
the binder in the heaviest grain.
In each end of the hub of the main wheel are placed two long roller
bearings to take care of the radial load and just outside of each of these
are ball bearings to take care of end thrust (Fig. 426). No matter which
way the thrust may be, it comes in contact with a rolling surface, reducing
the friction to a minimum.
Located on the end of a shaft extending through the hub are two small
spur gears which fit into a gear quadrant on the frame to allow the binder
FIG. 427.-Main wheel being placed in main frame.
to be raised or 10'wered upon the wheeL On the left side of the wheel is
attached a driving sprocket which is reinforced by radial rods extending
from the rim of the wheel to a point well out on the sprocket (Fig. 425).
458. Frame.-Built around the main wheel is a rigid frame (Fig. 427)
to which are attached the other worlcing parts of the binder. This frame
must be built of light but of strong steel which may be of the flat-bar or
angle-bar type, the whole being well braced to assure rigidity imd to
prevent the various shafts from getting out of alignment.
459. Countershaft.-The countershaft is placed on the frame to the
rear of the main wheel and parallel to the axle (Fig. 428). Located upon
.the counters haft are the bevel gear, clutch, sprocket, and a means for
adjusting wear on the bevel gear. There are roller bearings on both
ends of the shaft and on the end opposite that having the bevel gear is
GRAIN HARVESTING MACHINERY 269
a ball-thrust bearing against which pressure is constantly maintained
by means of a setscrew. The bevel gears are held firmly against the
bevel-pinion gear on the crank shaft, and run in an enclosed oil bath
(Fig. 428).
The clutch consists of a hub~like M~~[i'r::IJ1.""
arrangement which has been cut in an
irregular line somewhat on the order
of ordinary hand saw teeth so that
when they are fitting together, both
turn as a unit (Fig. 429). The sprocket
end of this clutch is free on the shaft
and only when it is in contact with the
teeth of the outer end, which is keyed to
the shaft, does it transmit power to the
binder parts.
Passing around the sprocket is a
large drive chain which receives power
from the sprocket on the main wheel. FIG. 428.- Enclosed gear case and
oil bath for bevel gears on the counter-
This chain may consist of either a shaft and crank shaft of grain binder.
pintle or a hook type of malleable-iron
or steel construction. An idler is placed on the under side to adjust the
tightness of the chain.
FIG. 429.-Binder countershaft and crank shaft: A, drive sprocket; B, clutch; C, clutch
spring; D, frame; E, crank shaft; F, bevel gears; G, frame; H, adjustable end-thrust ball
bearing to keep gear and crank-shaft pinion always in mesh and to take up wear; I, roller
bearings; J , drive sprocket for pla tform , elevators, and binder attachments.
460. The Crank Shaft.-The crank shaft is located along the right
side of the main wheel and at right angles to the countershaft (Fig. 430).
It extends from the rear of the machine to the front and transmits the
power delivered by the countershaft to the pitman.
At the rear and on the outer side' of the bevel-pinion gear is placed
a sprocket which furnishes power to drive the various elevators, platform
canvas, reels, and binder head. On some binders, however, an extra
sprocket is placed near the front for operating the binder head only.
The front end of the crank shaft is sometimes fashioned irrto a crank
for the attaching.of the pitman and in other cases it has a pitman wheel.
But unlike t he pitman wheel of the mower, it is not made heavy or
counterbalanced.
The crank shaft has a roller bearing at the rear and a solid bearing in
front. The reason a roller bearing is not used at the front end is because
the reciprocating action of the pitman is too hard upon a bearing of
t his type unless it be exceptionally well desi.gned. Practically all binder
Sickle Se_CI/OdS
• Wris f Pln
~~~~~~~~~~~y~!~~~~~~P~if~m:":"~~~/f.pJ/manHl/1eel
P/gln8eCfring
Plofform
"
Bevel GeCfrs
(
I
Adjusfing NiH .-' ! Clutch /Roller~!-

Ball an'd f ! Bearing Power foAII Blnder
ROller ,Covn!ershaff e~cepf Sickle
Bearing Sprockef
FIG. 430.- 0verhead view of the transmission of power from main wheel to sickle, with
frame and platform.
pitmans are made of wood. There are no metal straps placed on the
side as on the mowing-machine pitman. Holes are bored t hrough the
wood so t hat the pitman can be slipped on the wrist pin of the pitman
wheel or crank shaft and upon the sickle head. The pitman is prevented
from getting out of place by special fasteners at each end.
461. Sickle.-The sickle fOf grain binders compares very closely with
the knives for mowing machines; the principal difference is that the sec-
tions of the sickle are smaller and serrated along the edges. The sickle,
instead of passing from the center of one guard to the center of
the other, passes from the center of one guard directly through the
next and on to the center of the third. The travel is twice the distance
of that of the mowing-machine knife and the speed, of course, is about
one-half as great. Since the binder is cutting only the stems of small
grains, not so much power and speed are required as in the mowing
machine which must cut hard grass stems closely matted together.
I
462. Guards.- Guards on the binder are very much smaller than t hose
on the mowing machine. They are attached directly to the cutter bar
(Fig. 431) which is nothing more than the front framework of the platform . .
rovision is made for keeping them in proper alignment in practically t he
same manner as that of the mowing-machine guard.
C len rance (or rivet

head".
FIG. 43I.-Cross-section of binder-cutt,ing mechanism.
463. Ledger P lates.-Since the sections of the sickle are serrated,

the ledger plate edges are smooth. Exclusive of the size, this is practi-
cally the only difference between ledger plates for grain binders and those
for mowing machines.
464. Sickle Clips.-The clips for holding the sickle down are essen-
tially the same as those found on mowing machines.
465. Reel.- Just before the sickle cuts off the stems of the grain, t he
reel which is located just above the cutting mechanism should strike
FIG. 432.-Action of reel in cutting short grain.
the heads of the grain some 3 to 6 inches from the top of the heads
(Fig. 432) . The reel slats should come in contact with the grain slight ly
before the stems have been cut off by the sickle, so that the grain will
be lifted and thrown back on the platform canvas. Generally, the
outer end of the reel should be slightly higher and set farther forward
than the inner end. This is to retard the heads of the grain as much
as possible.
The reel is adjustable both vertically and horizontally. If tall grain

is being cut, it is necessary that the reel be eleyated until the slats strike
below the tips of the heads; the same is true if low grain is being cut.
In some cases the grain may be so dwarfed that it is dangerous to lower •
the reel to the point where the grain will be delivered to the platform
canvas. It is necessary in such cases to tack strips of heavy ducki~g
canvas to the slat so that the grain will be forced back out of tb: way
of the cutting mechanism on to the platform canvas.
The power for running the reel is transmitted from the crank shaft
to the upper roller of the lower elevator, through the roller, to the opposite
'side and then to the reel by anyone of the four following ways: by
gear, by chain, by chain and gear, or by knuckle joints.
466. Grain Wheel.-Located on the outer end of the platform is the
grain wheel which supports part of the weight of the binder (Fig. 430).
This wheel does . not run directly forward as does an ordinary type of
wheel; instead, it sits at an angle slightly under the end of the platform
with the front side angling inward. It is also placed on the inside of the
divider point which prevents the uncut grain from being mashed down.
The angle at which the wheel runs prevents, to some extent, side draft.
467. Platform.-The platform (Fig. 430) consists of a framework of
steel provided with a sheet-steel bottom which acts as a protection to
FIG. 433.-Platform canvas tightE'ner.
the platform canvas operating over two rollers, one of which is placed
at each end of the platform frame. Suspended 'a bove the rear part of
the platform is a back curtain to prevent the wind from interfering with
the grain falling on the platform canvas.
On each end and extending quite a distance to the front are the grain
dividers which divide the grain and guide it into the cutting mechanism.
(Fig. 430.) In order to go through gates, each of these dividers should
be made to fold up over the platform out of the way. The power for
operating the platform canvas is taken from the rear of the countershaft
and transmitted to the front canvas roller by a chain. The top of the
canvas moves inward so that any grain that falls upon it will be delivered
to the elevator canvases which are located at the inner end.
Figure 433 shows a means for tightening the canvas or relieving the
tension, as may be necessary. ' The tension of this canvas should be
FIG. 434.- Position and function of levers of an ordinary grain binder.
tight enough so that there will be no danger of it slipping upon the

ollers. A too tight canvas will cause excessive wear on the rollers and
on the canvas itself.
FIG. 435.-Iliustrating how the grain is carried from the platform to the deck.
468. Elevators.-There are two elevator canvases: the upper and

the lower (Fig. 435). Each of these canvases travels in opposite direction
over a set of two rollers. It is essential that the rollers be square with
each other for the canvases to run true. Figure 436 shows how to test
the elevator frame for squareness. The insides of th e canvases ate made
B~ Tosqucrre
/' vpper e/eycrfor
FIG. 436. - M ethod of testing a nd squaring up both t h e lower a nd upper elevators.
to travel in the same direction so that the grain, when delivered by the
platform canvas to the lower elevator canvas, is aided by t he upper
elevator canvas which holds the grain between them and carries it up to
the top, delivering it to the deck.
Adjuster or
l3utfer Lever
Keep these Bearings

• weI/oiled
,flun Hook End

forwa rd ontl
Slol Side olff
Run Cha /n as
Tw/ne Can showlJ b,j Qrrows
F IG. 437.-Elevator ch a in, deflector, ad juster lever, and bundle 6tr ip p~r.
The power for driving the canvases is taken from the rear end of the
crank shaft and is transmitted by m eans of t he same chain that operates
t.he platform canvas (Fig. 437) . This chain operates over a sprocket
of the upper roller of the lower elevator canvas and the power is carried
VltAl.N HAlf, Y i'J,s'1'1.ryu- MACHINERY 275
through to the opposite end where a set of four spur gears are located,
causing a reversal of the motion to the upper roller of the upper elevator.
Some manufacturers make the upper elevator adjustable, or to float
so that it will adjust itself for heavy or light grain.
Each elevator should have special
canvas tighteners to relieve the . ten-
sion when the binder is left idle over
night (Fig. 438).
469. Seventh Roller.-The seventh
roller (Fig. 435) is locat ed between the
upper roLler of the lower elevator and
the deck. It is an extra roLler which
has no canvas stretched over it. The
top surface rotates toward the deck.
The function of this roller is to carry
the grain over from the elevator to the
deck, preventing the lower elevator FIG. 438.-A simple method of loos-
canvas from dragging some of the grain ening elevator canvases. The lower
rollers ar e pulled up.
down on the drive chain. The roller
is driven by the upper roLler of the lower elevator. An intermediate
gear is used to give the same direction of rotation for the seventh roller.
470. Deck.- After the grain has been delivered by the elevator and
passed over the seventh roller, it is deposited on the deck (Fig. 439)
I
Buff Aqiu.sfer Exfension
Ex/ens ion sr/de
F IG. 4~9. -Binder deck.
down which the grain slides. Decks are made of either steel or wood,
both being extensively used. Some binders are made with a deck having
quite a steep slope, while others are made comparatively flat. The
steep deck is bett er because the grain will slide down to the packers
much easier than where the deck is flat; it also helps to prevents choking
under the shield. Wher~ the steep deck is used, it is necessary that the
grain be elevated higher and requires more work of the elevators to
accomplish the task.
471. Butt Adjuster.-The butt adjuster, often called the butter, is
driven from the front of the upper roller of the lower elevator or from
the front of the seventh roller. The purpose of the butt adjuster is to
even up the butts of the grain and assist the grain down the deck to the
packers. A lever controls the position of the butter. It s ollld run
as far forward as possible. There are two types of butt adjusters: the
vibrator and the endless belt. The vibrator type (Fig. 439) is driven
by a crank from either of the two places mentioned and causes the butter
board to work back and forth, evening up the grain and, at the same
time, having a slight downward movement to shove the grain on down
the deck. The endless-belt type may be either of canvas or of steel
and operates over two rollers in very much the same manner as that of
a canvas. Of the two types, the vibrator type is used more extensiyely.
472. Binder Attachment.-The function of the binder l'l,ttachment
as shown in Fig. 440, is to tie the grain into bundles after it has been
FlG. 440.-Binder attachment.
cut and elevated by the harv esting part of the binder. This attachment
works independently of all the other parts; it, however, must be in
proper correlation with them. It can be removed without affecting thE'
operating of the cutting and elevating of the grain.
There are two ways of furnishing the power to binder heads. One
way may be the chain, operating over a sprocket on the rear end of the
packer shaft, that operates the platform canvas and elevators; the other
may be an independent sprocket on the crank shaft, over which operates
a chain passed around a sprocket near the front end of the packer shaft.
From the packer shaft the power is distributed to the tyjng apparatus,
including the knotter head, needle, and tier shaft. The complete binder
attachment includes all parts that have to do with the tying and forming
FIG . 44I.-Under side of binder deck showing various parts.
of the bundle, and are the packers, needle, knotter, knotter shaft, and
the ilischarge arms.
The binder attachment can be shifted forward and backward to regu-
late the position of the band on the bundles, which should bc as near the
center as possible.
473. Packer Arms.-The packer arms are operated from a packer
shaft (Fig. 441) which is sometimes known as a crank shaft because the
fl. 271
FIG. 442.-The gears for driving the binder atta6hment are marked.
crank throws are somewhat like those on the crank shaft of the ordinary
gas engine. These cranks cause the p~ckers to revolve upward and
downward above the top of the deck. The grain is pulled and forced
(lown with the packer arms which pack it into a compact mass, against
the trip hooks, ready for the needle to pass the twine around it and the
knotter to tie the knot. On some binders there are more packer arms
t han on others. I n the majority of cases there are only two packer
arms working alternately, while on others a third packer is used.
Figure 442 sho~s how the gear teeth are marked so that if the binder
attachment gets out of time or new parts are to be installed, it can be
easily retimed.
474. Other Parts of the Binder Head.-The trip hook (Fig. 440)
should be set at about medium. At the time the bundle is tied, thE'
needle (Fig. 441) comes over from the top while the trip hook is exerting
force from the bottom. The needle is operated by the needle pitman
(Fig. 440) which is connected to the needle shaft at the front end. The
pitman can be adjusted in length so t hat the needle can be made to
travel far enough forward to make ~ure that the twine is delivered to
t he twine-holder disk.
475. Knotier.-Of all the parts involved in the binder attachment, or
the whole binder for that matter, the knotter head (Figs. 443 and 444),
knofter
Hook Cam Keep k nde
Sharp
FIG. 443. -Knotter head showing bill hooks and bill-hook spring, twine holder, al).d knife
arm.
or the parts that tie the knot, is the most delicate and complicated.
More trouble is often given by this one small piece of mechanism than
is encountered by the rest of the whole machine. It consists of a cam
gear wheel which has two sets of gear teeth for operating both the twine-
holder disk and the bill hooks. There are a twine-holder-disk spring, a
bill-hook spring, a knife for cutting the twine, and sometimes a stripper
arm to aid in stripping the knot from the bill hooks. All of these parts
rous· be operated in correlation. If one part fails to work, it affects all
GRAIN HARV-ESTING MACHINERY 279
the others. The knotter heads· on the various machines are not all the
same, in regard to the details and constructions, but everyone works
upon the same general plan so that a thorough understanding of one or
t.wo different heads will enable anyone to grasp the details of whatever
type is met.
Discharqe [yer Wheel ~r Cam Gear
ArmH,u5
, .. "./'
Cord Holder or
Knoffer Worm
P/nion
.I
/
FIG. 444.-Knotter head <ehowing twine disk holder and spring.
Knotter Types.-In general, there are two different types of

knots tied by blotters; one ties a straight knot, while the other ties a
bowknot. The types shown in Figs. 443 and 444 tie a straight knot.
The type shown in Fig. 445 ties a bowknot. Some operators prefer the
FIG. 445.-Knotter that ties a bow knot.
straight knot, arguing that a less amount of t""ine is used than for a
bowknot. When a straight krot is tied, a small piece of twine is cut
off and thrown away, while when a bowknot is tied, the amount of
twine that would have been thrown away is included in the bow. There
280 FARM MACH1NlfRY AND EQUIPMENT
is really no material difference in the amount of twine used by the different

types of knotters.
477. Tying the Knot.-The needle brings the twine over the bundle
of straw, placing it in the t,vine-holder disk which holds it securely while
the bill hooks revolve, wrappmg the twine around the bills, catching
the ends of the band between them and holding it while the twine is
pulled from over and around the bill hook, tying the knot. As the knot
is tied and the cord cut, the twine-holder disk retains the end of the
twine for tying another knot. The tension with which the twine disk
should hold the twine differs somewhat 'Yith different types of twine
disks, but, on the average, it will vary from 30 to 50 potmds as measured
by an ordinary pair of hand scales. The cam gear is revolved on what
Starting position. Needle turned part way over.

FIG. 446.-Illustrations s~owing correct position to hold twine to get it attached to twine
disk.
is known as the knoUer shaft upon which are placed the discharge arms . .
These arms are so placed that just at the time the knot is completed they
come in contact with the bundle, forcing it out and discharging it onto
the btmdle carrier. The operation of the discharge arms also aids in
finishing and completing the knot. In some types of knotters, the
stripping of the knot from the bill hooks is done entirely by the discharge
arms, forcing the bundle out. In others, they only aid the stripper arm
in stripping the completed knot from the bill hooks.
The knife for cutting the twine for each band may be attached to
either the stripper arm or held stationary against the t,,,ine disk. When
the knot has been completed, the needle drops below the deck and the
discharge arms and the other parts of the knotter head are locked to
prevent turning until the proper amount of grain has been brought down
for another bundle.
478. Twine Tensions.-To give the twine the proper amount of
ten lOn, a special apparatus called the twine tension is used. There are
three kinds : singl~-roller, double-roller (Fig. 441) and spring. In each
of these types, the tension is regulated by a spring, held by a bolt. When
the nut of the bolt is turned down, the twine is pinched together, causing
it to pull much harder. The amount of tensiqn should be 6 to 8 pounds.
To make small bundles, mo\'e trip arm A up To make large bundles, move trip arm A
as needed. dpwn as needed. Tightening trip spring B
m akes tighter bundles.
FIG. 447.-To regulate the size and tightness of bundles ma ke adjustments indicated.
FIG. 448.-Bundle carrier.
479. Size and Tightness of Bundles.-As a general rule, the size

of the bundles is regulated by moving the trip hook in or out on the
trip-hook arm, and by tightening and loosening the trip spring. How-
ever, when the trip spring is adjusted, it will also influence the tightness
of the bundles. Figure 447 illustrates these adjustments.
282 FARM MACHINERY ~ ND EQUIPMENT
480. The Bundle Carrier.-When the 'bundles are discharged from

the binding attachment, they fall upon the bundle carrier where the
bundles remain until enough have been collected to fill it, then they are
dumped. There are three types of bundle carriers:
1. Those that have the fingers of the carrier held at right angles to the direction of
travel and discharge the bundles by folding backward and downward.
2. Another is where. the fingers are placed parallel to the direction of travel and it
dumps the bundles by dropping to the ground and letting the bundles slide off (Fig.
448) .
3. The third type consists of nothing more than an endless canvas apl'On operatiIig
on two rollers. The bundles are collected until the operator throws it in action. They
are then rolled to the side and the carrier is ready to receive other bundles. This
carrier can be folded up out of the way, for transporting.
The first of these two types is sometimes rather hard to hold in

position, especially if the stubble is high or obstructions are encountered.
It also must be returned quickly after being dumped, to catch the first
bundle. The second type is likely to scatter bundles, especially going up
hill.
481. Tongue Truck.-All binders that are to be drawn with horses
shoJlld be equipped with a tongue truck similar to that shown in Fig. 449.
£aNO IIDrOLBTBU TO 011TJ1DZ'
FIG. 449.-Tongue truck.
A truck will take all the weight off the horses' necks and eliminate
whipping of the tongue. When a truck is used, the bindel' can be turned
much better by the use of the quick turned type which is said to turn
even faster than the team. Better adjustment of the binder in its oper-
ation can be secured.
482. Transport Trucks.-When a binder is to be moved any distance
from one field to another or along the road, the weight of the binder
should be carried upon two trucks which are placed on the binder at
each Side,' allowing the main wheel to be elevated (Fig. 450). Then, the
tongue truck is placed under t4e outer end of the platform and the
complete binder moved at right angles to the direction in which it
travels while cutting grain. This will also enable it, when the reel and
dividers are folded, to go through a comparatively narrow gate.
483. Binder Troubles.-When looki.J;lg over a binder out of adjust-

ment, get all the information possible about the machine. Do not
hurry . See that the machine is properly put together, chain tight, pawl
and needle properly timed and in good 'working order; examine the
knotter head, tying one or two sample knots, turn the binder attachment
by the discharge arms. Do not make any adjustments until the binder
has been carefully examined, even though it is thought that the trouble
has been located. Remember that the binder was made to work right
and for every trouble there is a cause and, therefore, a specific remedy.
Never make any adjustments to correct trouble until certain this is
exactly what is required . If, as is often the case, after certain adjust-
m~nts have been tried, they do not have the desired effe.c t, put them
F IG. 450.-Transport t rucks in place.
back as they were before making others. In inspecting a binder, it is

necessary to reason from effect to cause. If this is properly done, the
adjustments required to correct a trouble are usually few.
484. Chain and Gear Troubles.
1. Chain: Undue wear on the chains may be caused by their being too tight or
backward .
Remedy : Loosen the tension or run the chain with the head of the links leading and
slot outward. .
2. Oil: The use of oil or grease in a sandy country will collect the fine particles of
sand on the chain, causing it to wear very rapidly .
Remedy: Do not use oil or grease.
3. Chains: Chains sometimes will not stay on because the sprocket wheels are not
in line . This may be caused frOID the boxes becoming worn , a wheel bent, or a
bent shaft.
Remedy: Rebab bitt the boxes, get new 'sprocket wheel, or straighten the shaft.
4. Gears : Gears may act badly due to any of the fol!ow'ing: gears being out of true,
being out of line with each other, teeth meshing too tightly or IlOt tightly enough, and
the use of grease or oil in a sandy country.
Remedies : If the gears are not true, discard the old Olles and put on new ones. If
they are not in line, locate the cause and line up properly. If the teeth mesh improp-
erly, remedy this by the mechanism provided for the purpose, if there is any, or look
for\vear on the boxes or shafts.
The gear wheels on a binder are seldom oiled or greased,

485. Canvas Troubles.

1. Creeping: The creeping of canvases may be caused by running them too loose or
the elevators not being square.
Remedy: Square t he elevators and see that the canvases a.re drawn tight. Have the
tightness t he same on both sides.
2. Canvases not elevating the gmin may be caused by missing slats or loose canvases.
Remedy: Put on the missing slats and tighten the canvases.
3. Broken slats are generally caused by the elevators not being square or the .
canvases not being buckled evenly.
4. Chewed slats may be caused by a projecting bolt or the canvas guides being out
of shape.
Remedy: Locate the cause of the trouble and remove.
5. Slat binding: Occasionally a slat or a number of slats are too long, causing
binding.
Remedy: Saw off the slat or slats which are causing t.he trouble.
486. Binder-attachment Troubles.

1. Pawl spring becomes weak: As the pawl is the mechanical device by which t he
whole tying mechanism of the binder is put into motion, any trouble h ere will affect
the who le, which makes a good basis on which to locate the pawl and pawl-spring
troubles.
Pawl spring becomes u'eak, broken, or lost. This trouble may show itself in different
ways. The pawl may fail to catch and the tying mechanism may not move at all
when the trip is pressed. The pawl may catch momentarily and then let go, leaving
the needle part away up and the discharge arm halfway a round.
Remedy : Examine the pawl spring carefully and if weak, broken, or missing, supply
a new one.
2. Pawl failing to set: Often the face of the pawl and ratchet become worn round so
that instead of catching they slide past each other. This occasionally causes many
small bundles.
Remedy: File the face of the pawl and ratchet until t.hey meet each other squarely.
3. Pawl and pawl rollers become worn: Th e pawl and pawl rollers often become worn,
especially when not oiled properly. This will res ult in the billCler mechanism not
being put in action. If one is not careful, he may mist.ake a worn pawl roller for a
weak pawl spring, and vice "ersa.
Remedy: Replace the pawl rollers and put on a new pawl if necessary.
487. Needle Troubles.-On practically .all binders, the needle should

be completely advanced, just as, or a little before, the blotter bill comes
parallel with knotter shaft.
c 1. Needle slow: Often as the mechanism which drives t he needle becomes worn, it
will not come up quick enough for the disk to ca.tch the twine; thus it fails to t ie a knot
and the twine "'ill not be caught in the disk as it did not get t here soon enough.
Remedy: Shorten the needle pitman to bring it into time.
2. Bent needle: By continued use in heavy grain, the needle point may become
slight ly bent upward so t hat it does not bring the twine down into the twine disk and
will act the same as a slow needle.
Remedy: The needle is the arc of a circle. Make a mark on t he breast plate or deck
where it comes through, and test. If bent up, take a gas pipe or something that you
can grip well back on the needle and bend back again.
GRAlN HAR VESTING MACHINERY 285
3. Eye on needle worn: The eye on the needle is made of especially hardened steel
but sometimes it becomes worn so badly that th~ twine will not be delivered into the
disk.
R emedy: Some machines have a small wheel that can be replaced. Otherwise, if
the needle cannot be advanced enough to' remedy the difficulty, a new needle must be
put in.
488. Knotter-shalt Troubles.
1. Slow dischm'ge arms: The discharge arms must come around soon enough to pull
the twine from the knotter bill hooks. If the arms are slow, a perfect bundle will be
tied and left with some twine hanging to the bill hooks.
R emedy: Advance the knot.ter-shaft gear wheel · on cog. Then, time the needle
properly.
2. Discharge arms dropping down when set: In some machines the mechanism which
drives the discharge arms is locked in such a way as to prevent their dropping. In
other machines, they are held up by a cam on the knotter-shaft gear ,,·heel. If the
lock should become weak or broken or the cam wheel worn, the arms will drop, causing
t he needle to raise.
Remedy: Tighten the spring which locks the arms up.
3. Troubles due to patel: If the arms should fail to revolve, revolve part way and
stop, or revolve continuously, t he trouble is with the pawl.
R emedy: See Pawl Spring troubl es.
4. Thr01cing small bundles: The throwing of small bundles may be caused by
tangles-grain hanging on; a weak 1'1' broken spring; the faces of the pawl and pawl
lock not being square with each other.
R emedy : If caused from heavy tangled grain, little can be done.
489. Knotter Head Troubles and Remedies. 1- The condition of the

band is the best indicator of the source of t rouble. If the bundles are
FOUND
ON FOUND FOUllD FOUNJr FOUllD
BILLS WITH ON WITIi WITH
BUlIDLE BILLS BUlIDLlI BUlIDLE
BAND BAlID BAlID BAlJlI !.&lID

1 2 3 5 7
BAlJlI
a
FIG. 451.-Cond it ion of bands a nd where found as affected by the different knotter troubles.
not tied, examine the bands. The various types of bands shown in Fig. 451
show the condition of the band caused by different troubles.
1 For more detailed explanation, see Ohio Ext. Ser. Bull; 87, p. 87, 1935.
FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT {.
of
Band 1 is found clinging to the bill hooks with a lo()~e knot tied in it; the other end
is cut smooth and square.
Cause: The twine-disk spring is too loose and the twine tension may also be too
~hl. .
I !
Remedy: Tighten twine-disk spring and loosen twine tension.
Band 2 is similar to band 1 except it is found with the bundle and the knot is
drawn down fairly tight. The free end is cut smooth and square.
Cause: The twine-disk spring is too loose but the twine tension is in good condition.
Remedy: Tighten twine-disk spring but do not bother twine tension.
If. Band 3 is found on the bill hooks as in band 1 but the free end is crushed and
frayed out.
~r ~II
i ~. Cause: Twine-disk spring too tight and the twine tension is also too tight-just· t·he
reverse of band 1.
Band 4 is found with the bundle with knot drawn close and free end crushed and
frayed out..
Cause: The twine-disk spring is too tight. Nothing wrong with twine tension.
Remedy: Loosen twine-disk spring only.
Band 5 is found with the bundles with both ends of the band crushed and frayed
out.
Cause: Twine-disk spring even tighter than in band 4. Twine tension perfect.
Remedy: Loosen disk spring gradually.
Band 6 is found with the bundles. Both ends show that they have been wrapped
.' . around the bill hooks to form the knot but not completed. They are bent and
crinkled.
Cause: The bill-hooks spring may be too loose; or the hump on the under side of the
upper bill may be worn away so the bills cannot hold the ends of the band securely
enough when the knot is about to be completed.
Remedy: Tighten bill-hooks spring; replace bill hooks with new ones; a rat-tail
file will aid in deepening the groove so the twine can be held better.
Band 7 is found on the bill hooks with knot completed but band broken at some
other place.
Cause: Bill-hooks spring very tight, with loose bundles, or the stripper-arm cam is
worn, preventing knots being stripped from hooks. • ~,
I I
Remedy: Loosen bill-hooks spring; replace stripper-arm cam.
Band 8 is found with the slip noose tied around bundle with twine extending to
eye of needle.
Cause: Eye of needle badly worn back and the needle cannot advanee far enough
to place twine in twine-holder disk.
Remedy: Renew roller in needle eye or put on new needle. '. , ,r
In attempting to make adjustments for any of the above troubles,
make them gradually and one at a time. Turn the nuts or setscrews, as
the case may be, only a quarter of a turn each time a change is made.
If the trouble is not overcome, put all changes made back to their original
positions. Then try something else.
490. Miscellaneous Troubles. 'I -
1. New machine failing to start: Occasionally a new machine fails to start, owing
to some part st.icking or catching.
Remedy: Test out for the trouble. Throw the binder out. of gear and see that. the
bull wheel revolves without catching. Remove the elevator chain and throw in gear.
. ,',
•
\
'~ ~. .~ J
GRAIN HAR VES TING MACHINERY 287
This will test the sickle. Next, pu t on t he ele¥C.tor chain and disconnect reel. This
method will test one part at a time and should locate the trouble without difficulty.
2. Hot boxes: The heating or cutting ou t of boxes may be caused by boxes being too
tight, improper align ment with the shaft, 01' lack of proper lubrication.
Remedy : If the box is solid, rebabbitt and see that it receives plenty of good lubricat-
ing oil. If a split 'box and it heats, put shims between t he two halves and oil well.
Of course, if any box is badly worn, line properly with shaft and rebabbitt.
3. Badly shaped bundles: Poor bundles in good grain are caused from improper
manipulation of t he binder.
Remedy: R eel the grain properly; retard the heads and keep the butt adjuster
straight.
4. Heavy draft: Heavy draft may be caused from lack of sufficient good lubricating
oil; bull wheel being centered in quadrant wrong ; ch'runs, especially main drive chain,
being tOQ t ight; and paint or varnish not being cut out of the bearings.
R emedy: Apply lubricating oil to bearings. Center the bull wheel in the quadrant,
square. Have the proper tensio:! on t he chains. Kerosene oil will cut t he paint or
varnish from the bearing surfaces.
5. S i de draft: Side draft is usually caused by the grain wheel bearing being too
tight or out of line. Long cutter bar.
R emedy: Arrange the bearing so that there is no undue friction and see t hat it runs
straight.
6. Horses: A fast horse on the outside will sometimes make trouble with the draft
of a binder.
R emedy: Put fast horse next to grain.
7. Getting the grai n from the elevator to packer: Trouble is sometimes experienced in
getting light fluffy grain to the packers.
R emedy: See t hat the 7t h roller is working properly and lower t he deck cover.
491. Auxiliary Power.-Where teams are used to draw the binder,

much strain upon them may be eliminat ed by the use of a small gas
engine mounted upon the frame of the binder and connecting with the
mechanism by a chain extencli,ng from the engine over the sprocket of
the crank shaft. Then, the power operates the sickle, platform, reel,
elevators, and binding attachments instead of the main wheel. By this
method, only two horses are necessary t o haul the machine where formerly
at least four horses were needed. The binder-operating mechanism is
operated continuously and smoothly with fewer horses. An engine
suitable for this type of work may be mounted upon the binder frame
with very little trouble and furnish plenty of horsepower for the operation
of all parts.
492. Binder-tractor Hitch.- With the large amount of motor power,
in the form of tractors, available for the drawing of binders, some special
type of hitch should be provided. There are many types of patent
hitches for such work that allow one binder to be drawn by itself, or
two or more can be hitched tandem and operated successfully with one
tractor. A typical hitch is shown in Fig. 452. Some of these tractor
hitches do not require any aid for steering, on the part of the operator
of the binder. It is said that some hitches do not put an extra strain
upon the binder frame because of the way the hitch is connected. One
type of hitch is made so that when the tractor makes a turn to the left
at a corner, it swings the binder around with the main wheel acting as
a pivot. This swings the tongue of the truck on the rear binder to the
Front Binder
FIG. 452.-Automatic binder hitch.

.'
..ight and thereby prevents the rear binder from turning into the standing
grain. When the first binder has finished the turn, and moved forward
a few feet, the action of the parts is reversed which throws the stub tongue
of the following binder sharply to the left and steers the second bindel~
around the turn just at the right time.
493. Tractor Binder.-Grain binders built in 9- and IO-foot sizes,
especially to be operated with tractors, are available (Fig. 453). !The
binder mechanism is driven by power transmitted directly from tractor
(Fig. 454) by a revolving shaft. The power take-off is controlled by'the
FIG. 453.-Grrrin binder drawn by tractor and operated by power take-off.
engine clutch and the beft pulley gear-shift lever on the tractor. This
makes it possible to keep the bi.nder cutting and binding mechanism
operating while the binder and tractor are standing still. The power
shaft is equipped with universal joints which make it possible to transmit
the ' power when the machine is making a turn as well as to drive the
mechanism when the binder is tilted in different positions. An adjustable
snap clutch prevents breakage should the binder become clogged.
494. Rice Binders.-Binders built to harvest rice are similar to the
regular grain binder, but since it is often required to operate on soft
(Telescoping sharf
'-, Universal
jOints
\
I
I
Ba/I erne( socke!
connecft'on
FIG. 454.-Hitch and drive shaft for power-take-off operated grain binder.
muddy ground, it must be designed for such conditions. The sides

of the main wheel are entirely covered with galvanized sheet iron to
exclude the mud (Fig. 455). The grain ' wheel is shielded in a similar
manner on one side. Special spade lugs are provided to give suitable
traction. The metal parts that are exposed to the wet rice are galva-
nized, and the elevator is built higher. A large percentage of rice binders
are now drawn by tractors and operated by power take-off.
495. Care of the Binder.-At the end of the cutting season special
care should be given the binder before it is put away for the winter.
Putting away should not mean that it is set out in the barnyard or left in
some fence corner. The binder should be placed under a shed to protect
it from weather conditions and to prevent decaying of the wooden parts
and rusting of the metal parts. While the team is still hitched to the
binder, all parts should be gone over thoroughly and all be~rings and '
points of wear given a thorough soaking in oil. Then, the binder should
be run for 1 or 2 minutes to get the oil thoroughly worked into the
FIG. 455.-Main wheel and assembly for rice binder.
bearings; then, when it is put in the shed and left for several months,
these bearings will not be rusted and probably stuck, requiring consid-
erable length of time to get them in shape for the following season.
In addition t o this, as much of the dust and caked oil should be removed
as possible before it is set away. Then, just at this time, when all the
troubles that have been encountered during the cutting season are fresh,
they should be set down on a piece of paper so that repairs can be readily
made during the slack season. This is especially necessary where it is
likely that the same operator will not be with the binder during the next
season. The canvases should all be removed, cleaned, rolled up, and put
where there is no danger of rats or mice cutting them.·
496. Draft of Binders.- The draft of a binder is affected by the kind
of grain b eing cut, the yield, the condition and type of soil, the grade
and the condition of the binder. Therefore, the draft will vary greatly.
J
This variation may be from 60 to 100 pounds per foot in width covered.
This would require 1.3 to 2.2 horsepower hours per acre.!
497. Acres Cut per Day.-The number of acres of grain harvested
per day will vary according to the crmditions. A 4- to 7-foot binder
FlO. 456. -Grain header.
drawn by three horses will cut 1.79 acres per foot of width of cutter
bar in a lO-hour day. A 5- to 8-foot binder drawn by four horses will
harvest 2.08 acres per foot of width of cutter bar in a 10-hour day.l
A tractor binder will harvest frOrll 15 to 35 acres per day depending
on conditions and size and rate of ,..--------:------.,
travel. A 10-foot binder traveling at
the rate of 3 miles per hour will harvest
35 acres per 10-hour day.
THE HEADER
The header is a machine that is
used to cut the heads from the grain
instead of cutting all the straw (Fig.
4.56). The heads are elevated into
wagon boxes and stacked and later
threshed.. Most of these headers are
not equipped with the binding attach- b-:--.~...-:-.....,..,~-...,..,
ment but there are some that will bind
the grain and are called header binders.
These machines will cut a strip varying '-F....IG-.- 45- 7-. ...;...;...M..;.;;e-th- o-.;d.;..;.;..o-r ..:.lt' -u-rru h-
- ·-n g- p-u-s..J
from 12 to 20 feet in width and will binder or header.
require four to six horses to furnish the power. Instead of drawing the
machine behind the team, as in the case of the regular binder, the header
is usually pushed ahead of the team (Fig. 457). This will eliminate all
side draft which is sometimes troublesome with the regular binder.
There is also another type of machine for heading grain known as the
combined harvester and thresher, which will be discussed in a later chapter.
1 "Ext ension Service Handbook on Agriculture and Home Economics,!I U. S.
Dept. Agr., 1926.
CHAPTER XXIV
CORN HARVESTING MACHINERY

CORN BINDERS
The corn binder was designed and built primarily for cutting corn .. '
It is adaptable, however, for cutting many other row crops . Conse-
quently, it is often called a row binder. There are two types of
corn binders : the ground-driven horse-drawn and the power take-eff
tractor-operated.
498. Main Wheel.-Themain wheel
of the row binder differs very little
from that of the grain binder. There
are roller bearings in each end of the
hub and also ball bearings to take care
of end thrust. There is also a large
FIG. 458 .- Tr;1 usport rim to cover FIG. 459.-Frame, wheels, aud tongue
lugs ou mr.iu wheel. truck for horse-dr awn corn binder.
sprocket or gear placed on the wheel, for transmitting the power to t he

countershaft. F igure 458 shows a transport rim to cover the lugs on the
main wheel 0 the binder can be moved over highways.
499. Frame.- The frame (Fig. 459) of the binder is suppli ed with
quadrants so that the gears on each end of the main axle can be moved
up and down in the quadrants, rais~ng and lowering the b~nder. T he
whole m'whine is so constructed that it is well balanced over the main
and grain wheels.
292
CORN HARVESTING MACHINERY 293
600. Grain Whee1.-The grain wheel supports the side of the binder
away from the main wheel and serves the same purpose as the grain
wheel of the grain binder (Fig. 459) . It is provided with roller bearings
and is also placed in a quadrant so that the frame of t he binder can be
FIG. 460.-Cutting mechanism of corn binder: A , sickle; B, side knives.
raised or lowered. Extending from the outside from near t he front of

the right gathering board is a long stick called th.e divider stick which
prevents any large stalks or heavy grass from collecting in between the
wheel and the binder mechanism.
601. Countershaft.-The countershaft extends across the fr ame about
midway. It has either a sprocket or a spur gear on the left end to
FIG. 461._:_Ga thering boards pick up leaning and down stalks.
transmit the power from the main wheel. There are bevel gears for
driving the elevating chains, and the crank shaft and sprocket to drive
the binder attachment (Fig. 459).
Roller bearings are used on this shaft.
502. Cr nk Shaft and Wheel.-This shaft and wheel are similar to

those on a mower (Fig. 459) . A bevel gear is placed on the rear end
while the counterbalanced pitman wheel, crank wheel, or flywhee l is on
the front end.
FIG. 462.-0verhead view of upper gathering chains.
503. Cutting Mechanism.-The cutting parts of a corn binder are

subjected to very severe strains. They consist of two stationary side
knives, one on either side of the throat (Fig. 460). They aid in cutting
the stalks before they reach the sickle. These knives serve as the ledger
plates and must be kept sharp. The sickle, roughly, consists of one
serrated section which operates across and over the side knives. The
two units should make a close shear cut. It is essential that the sickle
be held snugly in the guides provided, for the cutting unit to do its best
work.
504. Gathering Sills and Boards. -The gathering sills extend several
feet to the front of the cutting mechanism (Fig. 459) . Attached to the
front of these sills are the gathering boards. They incline upward and
back over the machine at an angle of about 45 degrees (Fig. 463).
These boards can be tilted downward and lowered on the wheels
so t hat any leaning down or tangled stalks can be picked up and saved.
505. Elevating Chains.- The elevating unit consists of six carrier
chains, one chain on each of the four upper gathering boards (Fig. 462)-
FIG. 463.-Side view of upper and lower gathering chains on left side of binder.
two on each side: There are two chains on the lower part of the
inner gatherer. They are on the same side (Fig. 463). The purpose
of these chains is to elevate the cut material from the sickle to the binding
unit at the rear. Lugs on· the chains serve as fingers to carry the stalks
back. Long steel springs are provided in the lower part of the throat
to hold the stalks against the lower chains (Fig. 463). The tension of
t he chains can be adjusted by moving the sprockets (Fig. 465). The
chains on each side are operated independently by power received from
t he countershaft.
506. Binding Attachment. -The binding attachment, shown in
Fig. 466, for the corn binder differs from that of the grain binder only in
that it is built much heavier and placed in a different position. On
296 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMEN1'
most corn binders it is set vertically, while on some of the others it is set
inclined or horizontally. There are packers for packing the stalks against
the trip hook and an adjustment for determining the size of the bundle;
811ffCh ufe
Lever
FIG. 464.-Butt chute in raised position.
needle and knotter head for tying the knot in the band placed around the
bundle; and discharge arms for discharging the bundle after it has been
tied. •
607. Bundle Carriers.-Ali corn or row binders have bundle carrier
attachments. These may be of the finger or carrier type shown in
Atf}usfab/e Up or
Down for Tension
of·Chains and Ouf
or In for mae or
less ihroafCapacitJ
FIG. 465.-Method of adjusting tension on elevator chains.
Fig. 467. Since this type of machine is called upon to cut crops that
are in the green stage or before they are ripe, they are rather heavy
and, of course, the bundle carrier must be rather strong to carry a few
bundles until they are dumped. As a general rule, only one or two
bundles are allowed to collect upon the carrier before it is dumped.
XnoHer
FIG. 466.-Binding attachment for corn binder.
FIG. 467.-Bundle carrier.
608. Bundle Elevators.-Large bundle loaders, as shown in Fig. 468,

can be secured to elevate the bundles directly to the wagon or truck
traveling alongside the binder. Such a carrier would be a great labor

saver in handling material being cut for silage.
FIG. 468.-Bundle elevator.
609. Tractor Corn Binders.-Horse-drawll ground-driven corn binder..,

are often hitched to a tractor, but the regular tractor corn binder is
tractor-drawn and operated from the power take-off (Fig. 4(9). Most
tractor corn binders are one-row types, but several companies are now
Fw . 469.-0verhead view of a tractor corn binder with bundle elevator, wagon hitch, and
wagon in position.
offering a two-row machine (Fig. 470). Tractor .binders are available in

both the short and long types.
(JURN HARVl!J/:i'l'INU MACHINERY 299
Power is transmitted from the tractor through the power take-off shaft,
and transmission gears to a countershaft, and then through sprockets and
FIG. 470.-Two-row tractor corn binder.
roller chains to different parts of the machine (Fig. 471). The drive shaft
is equipped with universal joints and safety-snap clutch. The bearings
are equipped with pressure fittings for lubrication.
FIG. 471.-Power take-off shaft and support for the operation of a corn binder.
610. Corn-borer Attachment.-In fighting the corn borer it is impor-

tant that the stalks be cut below the surface of the ground to destroy
all larvae. Several low-cutting attachments for corn binders, similar to
the one shown in Fig. 472, have been
developed.
611. Acres Cut per Day.-Under nor-
mal conditions a row binder drawn by
three horses can cut about 7 acres in a 10-
hour day.
612. Cost of Use.-Tolleyl states that
the average life of a row binder is 11 years,
but during that time it will do only,
perhaps, 40 days' actual work. He fur- FIG. 472.-Low-cutting attachment
ther states that there is little relation for corn binder.
between the amount of work done annually and the years of service.
The cost per day used or per acre cut is very nearly in inverse ratio to the
1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' BuU. 992, p. 10, 1918.
ground covered annually. Out of 458 binders on which data were

obtained in western New York, 223 cut 15 acres or less annually . . . at
a cost of $9.78 per day. The remaining 225 cut 15 acres annually,
averaging 3272. acres, at a cost of $3.24 per day of service and 57 cents
per acre.
513. Other Methods of Harvesting Row Crops.-In addition to
t hat of the row binder, crops that have been planted in rows may be
harvested either by cutting by hand or by sled cutters.
Cutting by hand is a very slow and laborious method of harvesting.
Where only a small acreage is to be harvested, however, this is sometimes
the most economical method to use. One man with an ordinary, long,
straight, corn knife or cane knife can cut, on the average, about 1 acre
a day. If a considerable amount of cheap labor can be secured, 11'" saving
over the other method is had.
Another method of cutting row crops · is with the use of the horse--
drawn sled cutter. The United States Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin 303 describes several types of inexpensive sled corn
cutters similar in construction, which, by the use of a horse or horses
hitched one in front of the other, will enable two men to cut and shock
corn more rapidly and with less fatigue than by hand. In some cases,
the cutter is drawn on runners as a sled; in others, they are mounted on
wheels. A man on each side catches the stalks as they are cut and when
the shock row is reached the horses are stopped and the fodder ·placed
in the shock. A man with a little skill can construct such a cutter on
the farm. By means of adjustments at the point at which the wheels
are attached, the knives can be elevated or lowered to cut the c~rn the
desired height. There are no expenses for twine or repairs and but
little outlay for machinery. The most up-to-date types of the sled
cutters are machines that will cut two rows, having a divider extending
out to the side and front with chains to assist the tops of the stalks up
and back. The corn is cut with a reciprocat ing knife and carried back
by chains and dropped on a platform. When enough has been collected
to fo rm a shock, the team is stopped and the corn sct up.
One of the biggest disadvantages of the average sled type of corn
cutter is that it can be used only when the corn stands straight. Where
a stationary knife is depended upon to cut the stalks, the horse must
walk rather fast in order that the work be done with any degree of
proficiency.
CORN PICKERS
The corn picker is a single- or double-row machine, equipped with

snapping rolls to remove the ears from the standing stalks. The early
machines snapped the ears off the stalks without removing the husks,
but the modern machine performs two operations. It not only removes
the ears from the stalks but also .removes
the husks from the ears, delivering the
clean ears to a trailer wagon .or into an
elevated tank.
Power-driven corn pickers were first
r
constructed to be pulled behind the tractor

(Figs. 473 and 476), but a recent innova-
FIG. 473.-0ne-row pull-type corn FIG. 474.-0ne-row push-type corn

picker. picker.
tion is the push-type mounted on the tractor (Figs. 474 and 475). Both
FIG. 475.-Two-row push-type corn picker in operation.
types are available in the one-row and two-row sizes. The one-row '
machines may, be equipped with tanks to receive the ears, but the two-
row machines elevate the ears into a wagon trailed behind or to the side
of the picker.
614. Snapping Rolls.-The corn stalks are gathered up and led into
the snapping roils with the aid of gathering chains (Fig. 477). As the
FIG. 476.- Two-row pull-type corn picker.
stalks pass between the revolving roils, the ears are snapped off and
dropped into a conveyor trough (Fig. 478), which carries them to the
husking unit. The rolls have a spiral rib or ridge extending from the
--I
FIG. 477.-Snapping rolls and gathering chains for two-row corn picker.
front end, or almost the front end, to the rear end. As the top sides
of the two rolls revolve t oward each other, the ears are caught between
the small rolls and pinched off. The roll next to the {:onveyor is set
lower than the other roll, and as the ear is snapped off, it topples off the
rolls into the conveyor trough. The rolls are adjusted according to the
condition of the corn; if damp, the rolls are run close together and if
dry, the rolls are spaced farther apart:
616. Husking Rolls.-The husking nlls, as shown in Fig. 479, operate
in pairs with each pail' held together under spring pressure which can be
regulated. There sha.uld be just enough. tension on the rolls to cause
them, with the aiel of the husking
pegs on the rolls, to grasp tlJ.e husks
and pull them through the rolls so
that the ears are stripped clean
with a minimum amount of she11-
FIG. 478.-8nap- FIG. 479.-Husking rolls for two-row corn

ping r olls and con- picker. The cover is raised to show the rolls
veyor for corn and the retarding plates on the cover.
picker.
ing. Pressure on the retarding plates can be adjusted for large and small
ears. The number of rolls in a husker ranges from 8 to 12.
Some COl'll pickers are equipped with a fan to blow the husks and
trash off the husking rolls.
Any COl'll shelled by the husking rolls is cleaned as it drops into the
grain saver.
616. Wagon Elevator.-The wagon elevator receives the clean ears
from the husking rolls and carries them up and drops them into the tank
or into the wagon. Tanks do not have sufficient capacity for the two-row
machines, hence wagons an~ used.
617. Clutches.-Snap or slip clutches are provided on the main drive
shaft, the gatherers, the elevator from .picking to husking rolls, the
husking roils, the husk conveyor, and the wagon elevator.
618. Harvesting Costs.-The three following tables on the cost
of harvesting and cribbing corn are reproduced from Indiana Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin 362.
.1 •.•
" '
1? '.
TABLE XIV.-COSTS OF HUSKING AND CRIBBING CORN BY THREE METHODS, 1929.

1930 .~"D 1931
Method
Dollars per acre
I Cents per bushel
1929 1930 1931 1929 1930 1931

\ I
Hand husking ............ 3.98 3.02 2.97 10.0 8.7 , 0.1
One-row pickers .......... 3.41 3.15 3.09 8.8 8.1 0.0
Two-row pi("k~rs ....... .. 2.42 2.29 2.39 5.9 5.4 5.0
I I
TABLE XV.-LABOR, POWER AND MACHINERY REQUIREMENTS FOR HlJSKING AND

CRIBBING AN ACRE OF CORN BY THREE iHETHODS, 1929, 1930.AND 1931
Man Horse '\Vagon Tractor Picker

Method labor, work, use, use, use,
hours hours hours hours hours
Hand husking .................... 5.35 10.79 5.20

One-row picker .... ............... 2.98 3.00 2.57 l.20* 1.19*
Two-row picker ... ................ 2.10 2.67 1.82 .72* .71 *
* Differences hetween the figures for tractor and for picker use were caused by two men using two
tractor., one pulling the picker and the other drawing the loaded wagons to the crib.
TABLE XVI.-YIELD PER ACBE AND CORN-PICKING COSTS, 1929. 1930 AXD 1931
Bushels
...... Average Man- Cost Cost
,
)
picked
Yield group Ir;" yield, hours per per
per man-
,~'
bushels per ac.re ac.re bushel
f
11-)" hour
One-row pickers
Farms with lowest yields .........
Farms with highest yields ........
38
50
2.89
3.10
13.2
16.1
I $3.28
$3.10 S.5¢
6.7¢
Two-row pickers
Farms with lowest yields ......... 35 l.90 18.7 $2.21 6.3¢
Farms with average yields ....... 44 l.93 22.9 $2.43 5.5¢
Farms with highest ~rields ........ 54 2.05 26.4 $2.49 4.6e
I ,
"The yield per acre was one of the most important factors which affected the
cost of husking a bushel of corn with mechanical pickers. Yields had little effect
on the amounts of time and materials required to pick an acre, il,lld costs p~r
acre were but slightly higher on the farms which had high yields of corn. Costs
per bushel were much lower when high yields were secured.
Hand husking was usually hired on a bushel basis and high yields' were asso;-
ciated with proportionally higher costs per acre, with costs per bushel remaining
practically unchanged.'"
l" • ,
J ",' ~l __~.
, Ind. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 362, p. 8, 1932. "',
'.
, :~,
QHAPTER XXV
MISCELLANEOUS HARVESTING MACHINERY

COTTON HARVESTERS
The types of harvesting machines taken up in this chapter will be
those not adapted to such a large area as those discussed in previous
chapters. Such harvesting machinery as cotton pickers, peanut pickers
potato diggers, and pea harvesters "",ill be discussed as miscellaneou~
harvesting machinery.
COTTON PICKERS
The ingenuity of man has not yet overcome the difficulties of picking
cotton by machinery. In recent years many attempts have been made
FIG. 480.-Weighing bags of h :1lld-pi ckcd cotton. Note the tractor hitched to a home_
made four-wheel trailer. When 1,200 to 1,500 pounds of seed cotton have been picked. the
trailer is pulled out of the field and the family au tomobIle hItched to it and the cotton
carried to the gin.
to invent a machine that will eliminate the drudgery of picking cotton

by hand (Fig. 480). Several of the machines that have been invented will
pick cotton to a certain degree, but none of them have proved econom-
ically successful. If the plants were of uniform height and if the fruit
ripened uniformly, success might be obtained, but the plant varies in
height from 2 or 3 feet to 8 or 10 feet; and the fruit ripens from June to
November. Even when the fields are ready for the first picking, the
plants are still loaded with young tender bolls of all stages of growth
which are likely to be injured by a machine picker. Hand picking goes
305
on as in the centuries past but there is in sight a promise of relief from the
most tedious and expensive process connected with the cotton crop;
namely, that of gathering the seed cotton from the boll.
Efforts of inventors to develop machinery for harvesting cotton have
been along three different lines: first, vacuum; second, mechanically; and
third, combined vacuum and mechanical.
519. Vacuum Picker.-The vacuum cotton picker consists of two
vacuum tanks, each 10 feet long and 2 feet in diameter, equipped with a
powerful rotary vacuum pump. These tanks are mounted on an'ordinary
FIG. 481.-Vacuum cotton harvester.
farm tractor which also furnishes power for operating the vacuum pump
(Fig. 481). Six inlets are connected wi.th the tank and to these inlets
are attached six metal reinforced rubber hose. At the end of each hose
is a nozzle equipped with a valve which, when opened, permits an inrush
of air. When the vacuum pump is placed in operation by the tractor,
the air is drawn from the tanks which action in turn draws the air through
the hose, permitting the cotton, when the nozzles are placed near the boll,
to be drawn into the hose and from there into sacks which fit into the
tanks. This machine requires seven men for a complete crew-one to
drive the tractor and six t.o operate the nozzles. There are 12 nozzles
in all-one for each hand of the six operators. To pick the cotton'with
these machines, these nozzles must be directed toward each boll of
cotton so that the inrushing air will at the same time draw in the cotton
from the bolL The cotton, as it is sucked from the boll, is carried directly
into one tank and when it is full, the feed is shifted to the other tank,
while the cotton from the first tank is being emptied by the removal of
the full sack.
MISCELLANEOUS HARVESTING MACHINERY 307
This is only one of many similar attempts to use a vacuum or suction

for the picking force. •
620. Combined Mechanical and Vacu.lm
Picker.-This type of machine uses a com-
bination of air suction and a mechanical device
as a means to pick cotton. Figure 482 shows
a picker head attached to an air hose. The
small flexible shaft operates two inwardly
revolving fluted wheels, which when placed in
contact with a boll of cotton (Fig. 482) whip
the cotton out of the boll into a stream of air,
which sucks the cotton into the hose where it
is carried to the hopper or bag. FIG. 482.- Picking head
of a combined mechanical and
A small gas engine furnishes power for vacuum picker.
operating the machine.
621. The Mechanical P icker.-The mechanical cotton picker is a
machine for picking the cotton from the bolls similar to hand picking. Of
the numerous devices that have been
tried as picking units, only a few have
shown promise of success. Three are
described: First, the grooved spindle
with serrated teeth overhanging the
groove (Fig. 483); second, the double-
pointed corkscrew unit (Fig. 484); and
third, the damp smooth-wire spindle.
The machine shown in Fig. 485 is
equipped with the smooth-wire spindle.
For any machine to do efficient
picking, the cotton must be in good
condition. The bolls must be well
open with the cotton dry and fluffy
and protruding out of the boll far
enough to permit the picking unit to
catch, twist or roll, and pull out the
cotton. The locks of cotton must
easily pull from the boll or tags will
FIG. 483.-Vertical drum of cotton
be left hanging in the boll because the
picker equipped with grooved spindles fibers pull loose between seed.
and serrated teeth . The doffer is the
drum on the left. Cotton-picking machines may con-
sist of self-propelled units, tractor-
mounted push types, or the pull type of machine drawn to the rear and
side of the tractor. The picking units consist of arms or spindles radiat-
ing from a vertical cylinder or a wide belt. The picking spindles extend
horizontally from the. drum or belt and are caused to revolve by a gear
or friction drive. The rotation of the drum or belt is synchronized with
t he forward movement of the machine so that the picking units enter
the plant from one or both sides,
, catch whatever cotton they may
~ contact, and withdraw without
stripping or tearing through t he
plant. Any cotton caught by the
spindle remains on it un£il the re-
volving drum or belt carries the
spindles through stationary or re-
volving doffers locat.ed on the out-
side of the drum. The cotton drops
upon a conveyor, which elevates it
to a suitable receptacle.
522. The Stripper Cotton Har-
FIG. 484.-The double-pointed cork-
screw picking units catch t he cotton , twist vester.-The stripper type of cotton
and pull it out of the boll, then re\' erse to harvester has been used to harvest
release it.
cotton in northwestern Texas and
western Oklahoma. The stripper simply strips off the whole boll con-
taining the cotton and does not attempt to pick the cotton from the bolls
while attached to the plant. The separation of the cotton from the
bolls, burs, and trash is accomplished.by an extractor unit, which is either
a part of the harvester or a part of the gin.
•
FIG. 485.-Pull-cype tractor-drawn and power-driven cotton picker that picks witb. a damp
smooth-wire spindle.
Stripping cotton. with machinery is a substitute for hand snapping

or hand pulling. That is, no attempt is made to pick the cotton out of
the boll. The boll is snapped or pulled off.
T ypical homemade one- and two-row sled cotton strippers are shown
in Fig. 486. The machine shown in Fig. 487 is a tl'actor-mounted pusher-
MISCELLANEOUS HARVESTING MACHINERY 309
type stripper developed by the' author art thd T exas Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. The machines shown in Figs. 488 and 489 are commercial
machines.
FIG. 487.- Two views of the Texas Rtation cotton hMvester as it was used in 1935.
When smooth stripping rolls made of wood, steel, and rubber, were used in the
Texas Station Harvester at three roll speeds, and set at an angle of approximately
28 degrees, the highest percentage of the
cotton was harvested with the highest roll
speed. Similar results were secured when
rubber rolls and knurled surfaced steel rolls
were compared at different speeds. The
rubber rolls operated at high roll speed
harvested 96.8 per cent with Ducona cotton
and 95.5 per cent with Lone Star cotton,
while the knurled surfaced steel rolls har-
vested 96.2 per cent with Ducona and 97.0
per cent with Lone Star.
Comparisons of the effect of roll speeds
indicate that a higher percentage of the
cotton is harvested with a high roll speed.
When the effects of tractor speeds were FIG. 488.-0ne-row horse-drawn cotton
stripper.
compared, the average percentage of the
cotton harvested was 96.0, 95.5, and 94.7 per cent for low, second, and high
tractor gear speeds, respectively. The feet travel of the roll surface per foot of
tractor travel was 1.02 feet for low, 0.68 feet for second, and 0.50 feet for high
t r actor gear speeds. 1
523. Cost of Harvesting Cotton.-In discussing the cost of harvesting
corn with machinery it was shown that the yield per acre had little effect
on the cost per acre but did materially affect the cost per bushel. Like-
wise, the yield per acre of cotton affects the harvesting cost per pound
or per bale, but the cost per acre will remain more constant, as the
amounts of time, labor, and materials required per acre were ~bout as
much for harvesting low yields as for high yields.
FIG. 489 .- Two-row push-type tractor mounted a nd driven cl'ltton stripper.
Table XVII gives a comparison of the cost of hand snapping and

machine harvesting .
TABLE XVII.-THE AVERAGE ApPROXIMATE COST OF HARvESTING AND GINNIliG
HAND-SNAPPED AND MECHANICALLY HARVESTED COTTON IN NOR'rHWEST
TEXAS -19321
Pounds Har vesting cost Ginning cost

required
to m ake a Total
Method of harvesting P er Per
SOO-pound Per Per cost
bale of 100 100
bale bale
pounds pounds
cotton
--- --- ---
Hand snapped ..... . .. ' . .. 2100 $0.75 $15.75 $0 .50 $10. 50 $26 .25
Machine (T exas Harvester ) . 2200 . .. . . 3.08 0 .50 11 .00 14 .08
Difference in favor of ma-
chine harvesting ... . .. . ... ' " . .... . ..... . .. " . . . .. .. 12 . 17
1 Snapped cotton usually a pplies to gathering open cotton, burs and all , by band.
524. Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Harvesters.- The charac-

teristics of the cotton plant linked w~th varietal characteristics are the
most important factors that influence the efficiency of cotton-harvesting
machinery. These characteristics include the size of the plant, amount
1 T exas Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 511, p. 17, 1935.
MISCELLANEO US HARVESTING MACHINERY 311
of foliage, number and length of branches, size of bolls, size and brittle-
ness of peduncle of boll, mann r in which boll opens, storm resistance,
an.d the degree to which the fibers between seed are interlocked or tangled.
Other factors are : field c~)llditions, field topography, soil type, and
climate.
Machine factors are : kind of picking unit, manner in which the unit
is presented to the plant, flexibility of the machine, adjustable features,
and general design. '
POTATO DIGGERS
At the very best, the harvesting of the potato crop is a slow, tiresome,
dirty task. There are two classes of potato diggers : walking and riding.
525. Walking Potato Diggers.-Figure 490 shows an ordinary
walking middlebreaker which has rods substituted for the moldboards.
FIG. 491.-Walking shaker potato digger.
A much improved walking potato digger is shown in Fig. 491. The

shovel ~ a large rounded scoop which slides under the potatoes scooping
the soil and the potatoes up onto the shaker grate at the rear. The
grate is hinged at the front. A five':pointed wheel under the grate gives
it an up-and-down motion which sifts the soil from the potatoes as
they pass over the rods. A forecarriage to control the depth of the
shovel is fastened to the front of the beam. A fender to clear away the
weeds and' vines is suspended from the beam in front of the shovel.
526. Riding Potato Diggers.-The digger shown in Fig. 492 may be
considered as a standard one-row ground-driven horse-drawn potato-
FIG. 492. -Standard one-row riding potato digger.
harvesting machine. It is commonly called an elevator digger. The

potatoes, vines, and soil are scooped up by the shovel onto the
elevator.
The elevator is made up of bent rods forming an open carrier chain.
Each alternate link is raised and lowered to form pockets to elevate the
potatoes. As the elevator rev01l-es, it is agitated by elongated or oval-
shaped sprockets (Fig. 493) which give the elevator a brisk up-and-down
motion to shake out the soil. The potatoes
and vines are carried back .to the rear
shaker and ville t urner (Fig. 494) which
O! deflects the vines to the side, leaving the
potatoes and vines separated on the
ground. Two drive ",-heels equipped with
large lugs furnish power for the elevator,
b the power being transmitted by means of
c
gears and shafts.
FIG. ' 493.-Agitator sprockets
used on potato-digger aprons: A. 527. Tractor Potato Diggers.-Potato
for loose sandy soil; B . and C. pro- diggers like many other machines have
vide normal agitation; D, for
extreme agitation. been adapted so that they may be drawn
and operated by tractors. F igure 495
shows a one-row tractor-power take-off driven potato digger, and Fig.
496 shows a two-row machine. The one-row machine is hitched to the
tractor at the left side, but on the two-row digger the hitch is ahead
of the center of the machine.
MISCELLANEOUS FlARVESTING MACHINERY 3 13
Both the one-row and tvYo-row machines can be provided with a

change of speed transmission, so that the speed of the apron can be
changed.
FIG. 494.-Vine t urn er a nd shaker.
FIG. 495.-0ne-row tractor-drawn a nd power take-off driven potato digger.
A two-row potato digger recently developed has a single plow and

elevator.
i Sh/'efd; over qff moving parts

I Safety ell/feb on
e(:l'ch
High.heavyelevafor sides
Frame beam orhecrvy
steel wide 26-inch ele
w/fhspring
FIG. 496.-Two-row tractor-drawn and power-driven potato digger.
FIG. 497.-Rolling coulters on potato digger to cut "ines when used to dig sweet potatoes.
.--Shovel
FIG. 498.-8tone trap.
MISCELLANEO US. H.ARVESTING MACHINERY 315
628. Attachments.-A tonglle truck aids in controlling the depth

and makes turning in a short place easy.
R olling coulters, as shown in Fig. 497, are helpful where the ground
is covered with running vines and weeds or for digging sweet potatoes.
A stone trap can be used to advantage where the field is stony
(Fig. 498). An auxiliary engine can be mQunted on top of the digger
to operate the elevator, where the digging is extlla heavy.
~9. Baggers.-Special bagging machines are being used to some
extent but are not y et considered as regular equipment. The bagger
is a separate unit and is attached behind the digger. The potatoes are
dropped from the digger onto the bagger elevator which elevates and
drops them into a bag or crate.
PEANUT DIGGERS
The digging of peanuts is the removing of the peanut and the vine
from the soil. The type of instrument used to uproot them varies
from a one-horse turning plow to a machine potato digger. If the one-
horse turning plow is used, the moldboard should be removed. When
the moldboard is left on t he plow, t here will be a tendency to cover the
vine as the furrow is rolled over.
630. P eanut Diggers.-United States D epart.ment of Agriculture
Farmer's Bulletin 431 describes t he following homemade peanut digger.
This digger is constructed usually upon the plan of an ordinary ph.w but hav-
ing a U-shaped blade or cutter with one edge sharpened and so mounted that it
may run underneath the plant. It is desirable to use a double team, straddling
the row so that the digger will run at uniform depth. Almost any blacksmith can
. construct a tool of this kind at a very small cost. Any device that will sever the
roots of the peanut plant just below where the peanuts are formed wjll answer
the purpose and prove better adapted to the work than the plow.
M any peanut growers are now using the regular potato-digging machine which
is drawn by two or three horses, 11 aving one man to drive the team and operate
the digger.' This machine removes the peanuts from the ground, shakes the soil
off, and leaves the vines with the peanuts hanging to them lying upon the surface
of the ground. Not as many pods are lost when the machine digger is used as
when the plow and hand method is used.
H ARVESTING SWEET 'P OTATOES
The sweet potato has long tangled vines which make harvesting
difficult. It is necessary that these vines be cut, before any machine
can be used to uproot t he potatoes.
The regular potato diggers can be used to good advantage where a
coulter or special cutter is attached to the machine to cut the vines.
BEET DIGGERS
A machine especially designed to pull and lift the beet roots out of
the soil is shown in Fig. 499. Both walking and riding types are exten-
FIG. 499. - Horse-drawn beet digger.
sively used. The California Agricultural Experiment Station is devel-

oping a beet digger that will dig the plants out of the ground, elevate
them, and automatically cut off the
tops.
PEA HARVESTERS
The pea pods which are necessary
for seed for the next crop must be
picked from the vines. Special pea
pickers have been introduced in some
sections of the country. One type of
pea harvester has a winged drum
revolving rapidly over a stationary or
moderately sharp edge. The pods are
FIG. 500.-Beet digger attached to knocked back upon a platform and
tractor.
then elevated into a bag.
Peas are also barvested by cutting the vines with a mowing machine.
When thoroughly dry, 'they are run through a threshing machine where
the peas are threshed from the vines.
HARVESTING SOYBEANS
Soybeans can be harvested with either the pea harvester or the
combined harvester-thresher.
Heitshu 1 in his study of soybean harvesting gives four methods:
I Agr. Eng" Vol. 9, p . 209, 1928.
MISCELLANEO US HARVESTING MACHINERY
f .. ,
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I
FIG. 50l. -0ne-row horse-drawn soybean and pea harvester .
FIG. 503.-Grain-sorghum header.

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.........
,
1. The cut and thresh.

2. The row harvester. .~ ,
3. The broadcast harvester.
4. The combine.
llis investigations showed the combine to be a very successful soybean

harvester.
"P.'-
r,:- GRAIN -SORGHUM HEADERS

Where grain sorghum is grown on a large scale for feed and for
market, it is quite a laborious task to cut the heads by hand. Figure
503 shows an attachment, for a wagon, which cut the heads from the
stalks and deposit them directly into the wagon box. The double pole
extending to the front allows two horses to be hitched to the wagon with-
out the neckyoke bending the stalks over and shattering large quantities
of the grain.
Another grain-sorghum heading device on the market is attached to
the side of the wagon box.
The combined harvester-thresher is also used to head and thresh
grain sorghum;
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PART IX
SEED PREPARATION MACHINERY
"
CHAPTER XXVI
..
GRAIN THRESHERS
In the preparation of many crops for the market, it is necessary that
the seed be separated from the stalk on which they grew. All the small-
grain crops must have the seed stripped from the straw, corn must be
shelled from the cob, peanuts ' threshed or picked from the vines, and
the cotton seed separated from the lint. Different types of machines
are necessary for the separation of the seed from the holding agent in
the different crops. Generally, very large apparatus is necessary,
incorporating a number of different operations in the same machine as
the material passes through it.
531. The Grain Thresher.-The thresher is one of the largest field
machines used in the processing of any of the field crops. In the true
sense of the word, it is made up of a combination of several different
machines having a special and separate function to perform in the
separation of the grain from the straw. The modern grain thresher is
a very efficient machine anet when properly operated and given any
reasonable care is durable and, perhaps, more nearly perfect in operation
than any other machine used on the farm. It not only threshes, sepa-
rates, and cleans the grain thoroughly, but accurately weighs it and
delivers it into the bag, wagon box, or granary, and delivers the straw
to the stack or into the barn. The whole process from the time the
bundles are deliv ered to the feeder until the task is finished requires only
about 3~econds.
532. Functions of a Thresher.-The work performed by a thresher
may be divided into six separate functions which are:
1. To feed the grain t o t.he threshing cylinder properly .
. 2. To t hresh the grain out of the head properly.
3. To separate the grain from t he straw properly.
4. To clean the grain properly and deliver it to the weigher.
5. To weigh and record properly the amount of grain threshed.
6. To deliver the straw and chaff to the straw stack.
All parts necessary for the performance of these functions, except

the fifth, are shown in Fig. 504.
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GRAIN THRESHERS 321
.
FEEDING THE GRAIN
533. Self-feeder.- The feeder is a special attachment placed on the

front of t he machine and is showil in Fig. 505. It is the most human-like
part of the whole machine, because of the peculiar manner in which
it feeds the grain into the threshing ',apparatus, regulates the amount
fed, prevents choking, and cuts the bands. The success of a threshing
job depends directly upon the manner in which the bundles are pitched
into the feeder and the manner of feeding. Both will have a great
infiue~pon the grade of work done.
The bundles should be pitched onto the feeder carrier heads first. If
a head of straw is taken with the tip between two fingers and held
closely and two other fingers strip from the tip downward, the grain
will shell out easily. If the stem of the straw is held and the fingers
strip over the head in the reverse direction, it is difficult to shell the
kernels from the heads. This is similar to the operation and action of
the cylinder and the concave teeth on the head of the grain as it passes
between them. The proper manner, then, to feed the bundle into the
feeder, is to place the bundle so it will be delivered to the cylinder, heads
first. In the operation of a very large machine this feature is often lost
sight of and the bundles pitched in and let fall any way they will.
As the carrier moves the bundles forward, they come in contact with
the knives called band-cutter knives which cut the bands from the
bundles. There are two types of band cutters, the rotating and the
reciprocating. The rotating type consists of wide-curved knives placed
on a shaft and revolved. The reciprocating type (Fig. 505) acts similar
to the pitman on the mowing machine, because it moves up and down,
to the front and back,. cutting the bands and, at the same time,
spreading the straw and pulling it back to the feed racks and pans.
These feed racks consist of upper feed racks and lower feed pans
(Fig. 505). They feed the grain to the cylinder. The edges are notched .
•
FIG. 506.- Self-feeder showing speed governor.
The racks and pans are adjustable and reciprocate back and forth to
spread the straw the whole length of the cylinder towards which it is
being moved.
The lower feeder pans should be adjusted Iso that the straw will be
fed to the cylinder at a point about midway between the horizontal and .
perpendicular or at an angle of 45 degrees. This, of course, is for average
conditions. The cylinder, if fed too low, has more suction and when fed
high has a sort of combing out action.
A retarding device prevents the grain being fed too rapidly to the
threshing apparatus.
534. Feeder Governors.-The action of the' feeder is controlled by
two governors called speed and straw-volume governors.
GRAIN THRESHERS 323
The speed governor is sci called because it is regulated by the speed
of the cyr del' The feeder does nut engage until the speed of the
cylinder is high enough to do good work. When threshing, if the speed
of the cylinder falls below that necessary for proper threshing, the speed
governor stops the whole feeder and prevents any grain being fed to the
cylinder until it regains the proper speed. The sensitiveness of the
governor can be regulated to suit different grains and conditions. One
method of regulating the. sensitiyeness is shown in Fig. 506.
The straw-volume governor controls the volume of grain being fed
to the cylinder and is operated by the feed pans or a special straw shoe,
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STRAW OOVERNOR CLUTCH

FIG. 507.-Self-feeders showing straw-volume governor.
as. shown in Fig. 505. They are arranged so that an excessive volume of
grain passing under them will raise them, operating a trip or brake
(Fig. 507) stopping the carrier until the excess grain is fed into the
cylinder. The operation of this straw-volume governor is independent
of the speed governor. However, the former depends upon the latter
for its power. When the volume governor stops the carrier, it does not
stop the band-cutter knives and feed racks and pans. They keep on
operating to feed in the eXCesS straw.
THRESHING APPARATUS
The fUDction of the threshing apparatus is to thresh properly the
grain out of the head. The parts necessary to perform this function are
FIG. 508.-Threshing cylinder.
FIG. 509.-Concaves and bar grates.
FIG. 510.-Sectional view showing functions of the cylinder, concaves, grates, and beater.
GRAIN. TllRESHERS 325
the cylinder (Fig. 508) and the concaves (Fig. 509). The position and
relation of these parts to the other parts of t he thresher are shown in
Figs. 504 aJJ.d 510. The function is accomplished by the cylinder teeth
striking tEe grain hard enough to shatter the kernels from the head. The
action is assisted ' by the. concave . teeth which project up between the
cylinder teeth.
535. Cylinder a nd 'C onc a ve
Teeth.- When the cylinder and
concave teeth are in proper adjust-
ment, there should be about %2-
inch clearance. between the teeth,
as shown in A Fig. 511. If the
cylinder and concave teeth are not
set close enough, un threshed heads
will pass through the space be-
tween the ends of the teeth and
the bars, as shown in B Fig. 511.
When a tooth has too little clear-
A B c
FIG, 511.-Correct and incorrect set-
ance on one side, and too much tings of cylinder and concave teeth: A, cor-
on the other, as shown in C Fig. rect; B, and C, incorrect.
511, grain will be cracked and poor threshing will result.
The number of rows of concave teeth can be changed for different
conditions and crops.
It is essential that the cylinder teeth travel at a speed sufficient to
thresh clean. The speed will depend upon the condition of the grain
and the kind of crop. For the small grains, such as wheat, oats, and
FIG, 512.-Sectional view of cylinder-shaft bearings : A, nuts for holding the bearing
its supporting frame; Band C, method of bolting the bearing frame to thresher; D, grease
..0
cup for lubri cating bearing; C, cylinder-bearing cover.
barley, a circumferential speed at the tip of the teeth of about 6,000

feet per minute should be maintained. The size of the cylinder, which
ranges from 9 to 20 bars, determines the revolutions per minute. The
range of speed is from 750 to 1,400 revolutions per minute. The speed
recommended by the manufacturers should be used. A speed indicator
should be used to determine the proper speed. Do not guess at the

speed; know it.
536. Cylinder Bearings.-Cylinder bearings may be either babbitt,
ball, or roller. Any type of bearing should be kept well lubricated. No
end play should be allowed which will affect the spacing between the
cylinder and concave teeth. Figure 512 shows the constructi<tn of a
ball bearing for a cylinder shaft.
SEPARATING APPARATUS
The function of the separating apparatus is to separate properly the

grain from the straw. The parts included in the separating apparatus
are: grates, beater, straw racks, check board, curtain, and grain conveyor
or pan. The location and relation of these parts to the other parts of
the machine are shown in Fig. 504.
537. Grates.-The grates which are placed just below and just behind
the cylinder, form a continuation of the concaves, but are considered a
part of the separating apparatus, because a large percentage of the grain
is separated from the straw through them.
On some of the smaller machines, the grates consist of ste~ l tines
set about Y2 inch apart, as shown in Fig. 510. In the large macrunes, the
grates consist of parallel steel bars as shown in Fig. 509. The grates
are usually adjustable and should be carried as high as possible to secure
the maximum separation.
538. Beater.-The beater is mounted directly back of and close to
the cylinder (Fig. 510). Its function is to prevent the straw from follow-
ing and winding around the cylinder. It also directs the grain and straw
down upon the straw racks, retards its velocity, and aids in separating
the grain from the straw.
539. Check Board.-A check board (Fig. 504), made of wood or
steel hinged at the upper edge, is placed just to the rear of the beater.
It prevents the cylinder and beater from throwing grain or straw to the
rear of the machine.
A canvas curtain (Fig. 504) is placed near the center of the machine
to retard the straw as it passes over the straw racks.
540. Straw Racks.-Figure 504 shows the location of the straw racks.
They extend the whole length of the machine from the grates to the
wind stacker. The function of the straw racks is to remove all loose
grain from the straw as it is agitated and conveyed to the rear of the
machine and dropped into the wind-stacker fan housing.
The straw racks are provided with four or five risers with fish backs
to toss and drop the straw as it is worked backward to the rear of the
machine. The loose grain falls through the spaces in the straw racks to
the grain pan below.
GRAIN THRESHERS 327
The average speed for the rack shafts ranges around 230 revolutions
per minute. When driven at this r?-te of speed, the straw that is pitched
up on the upward movement ' of the raw rack falls back onto the rack
at aboutA'ne same time that it' is ready to start on another upward
movement. If operated at a faster speed than this, the straw rack will
likely start on another upward movement before the straw has had time
to drop back on the rack and prevent the steady movement of the straw
to the rear.
541. Grain Pan or Conveyor.-The grain pan extends from the front
of the machine to the cleaning shoe. The chaffer joins and forms a
continuation of the grain pan (Fig. 513).
FIG. 513.-Grain pan with chaffer and chaffer extension: A, adjustment for chaffer exten-
sion; B, adiustment for chaffer; C, chaffer extension; D , chaffer; E, grain pan.
All the grain that is shattered by the feeder, threshed, and separated
by the cylinder concaves, grates, beater, and straw racks, falls upon the
grain pan, located underneath them. The grain is conveyed backwal;d
,
by an oscillating motion to the cleaning shoe.
CLEANING APPARATUS
The function of the cleaning apparatus is to clean the grain prop-

erly and deliver it to the weigher. It is accomplished by passing the
FIG. 514.-Cleaning apparatuB.
uncleaned grain over a series of sieves and screens, through which a

current of air is forced, as shown in Fig. 514.
The parts necessary to perform t his function include: shoe, chaffer,

chaffer extension, sieves, screens, tailings elevator, and fan.
542. Shoe.-The combination of the sieves and the screen used for
cleaning the grain is commonly called the shoe (Fig. 514).
543. Chaffer.-The chaffer or conveyor sieve forms a continuation
of the grain pan (Fig. 514). Part of the coarser straw and sorhe chaff
are retained on t he chaffer, as they pass over it, while the grain drops
through upon the shoe sieve. The size of the openings in the chaffer
is adjustable to suit different kinds of grain. .
544. Chaffer Extension.-The chaffer extension is a continuation
of the chaffer (Fig. 514). It has larger openings and is set at a steeper
angle, to allow the unthreshed heads to dro'p through into the tailings
auger trough.
545. Tailings Auger and Elevator.-The unthreshed heads and grain
that work back nrithout faJling through the chaffer are called taihngs.
They fall through the open spaces of the chaffer extension into the
tailings auger trough and are conveyed out to the side by an auger and
delivered to an elevator which carries them back to the cylinder for a
seco'nd threshing. The kind and quantity of tailillgs are an indication of
the grade of work being done by the thresher. If all parts of the machine
are properly set, very little tailings will be had.
546. Sieves.-Sieves may be adjustable or non-adjustable. The
adjustable type is used more often in modern threshers. It is essential
to have the proper opening suited to the type of grain being threshed.
The opening should be just large enough to permit the free passage of
the clean grain.
547. Screens.-It is sometimes necessary to place a screen in the
bottom of the shoe to remove weed seeds and other foreign material.
The screened out material is allowed to fall on the ground. The grain
gravitates down the bottom of the shoe to the grain auger trough where
it is carried out by the grain auger.
548. Fan.-Figure 514 shows the location of the fan. It, creates a
blast of air which should 'be just strong enough to lift out the chaff and
other light material. The blast is regulated by fan blinds, on each
end of the fan housing. If a stronger blast is desired, the blinds should
be opened. If the blast appears to be too strong on one side, the blinds
on the opposite side should be closed a little.
549. Grain Handlers.-To weigh and record properly the amount of
grain threshed, grain handlers a re placed on the threshing machine to
receive the fresh grain from the grain auger, elevate it, and deliver it to
t he loader or weigher. Loaders are nothing more than elevators with
spouts for delivering the grain to the wagon or bagging attachment
(Fig. 515) . When a weighing attachment is used, it has an elevator with
GRAIN THRESHERS 329
".
a weighing and recording mechanism. In general, the various parts
composing a weigher will cpnsist 6f the following: hopper, scale beam,
ship bracket, trip pin, trip dog, gear shaft, driving gear, elevator cut-off,
hopper cut-off, and· recorder. The weigher (Fig. 516) is a mechanism
../'
Fm. 51 5.- Grain IMd('r.
which automatically weighs a quantity of grain and, then, automatically

dumps it into a spout for bagging or directs it to the wagon. At the
time the grain is dumped, it operates the registering device or recorder
which registers by half bushel s, the number of bushels threshed.
FIG. 516.-Grain weigher.
660. Strawstacker.-The function of the strawstacker is to deliver

properly the straw and chaff to the strawstack by means of the wind
stacker (Fig. 517). The wind stacker is being used almost universally
and is very simple and compact in construction. The straw can be
delivered to almost any place desired without the aid of men to do the
stacking. It is often desirable to deliver the straw directly into the barn.
The wind stacker is able to do this very well. There is a large fan case in
which is located a good sized fan that receives and blows the straw out
through a tube-like chute. This fan should be driven at a ~peed to
insure a blast strong enough to care for any volume of straw . . Most
wind stackers are provided with a turret which will cause the chute to
HI:mdWhee/
,'forOscillafi"ng_
theSiraw Chufe
'\, Confrol Leper for -

Operaf/nqllufomaficcrl/y
or Manually as desired
t:'FlV"",,'.m,, Orum Exfens/on
FIG. 517.-Wind stacker and straw chute.
oscillate so that the straw will be delivered over a large space. When
the chute has traveled in one direction some distance, an automatic
trip pin causes it to reverse its motion and svting in the opposite direction.
Stackers are sometimes provided with a grain-saving attachment. Lattice-
work or a grate is placed in the bottom of the fan case which allows the
grain to drop from the straw. A small auger operating in a pipe will
convey the grain saved to the tailings auger.
651. Size of Threshing Machine.- To determine the size of a th.resh-
ing machine, two measurements must be taken: the 'w idth of the throat
GRAIN THRESHERS' 331
or the width of the cylinder and the width of the machine at the rear.
T hese measurements will give the size of the machine. For a very
small thresher, the width uf the cylinder is 20 inches; the rear of the
machine is 28 inc he's ; then, the machine is a 20- by 28-inch thresher-
this is about the smallest machine built. Large types of thresher may
have a ~h at the cylinder of 40 inches and a width at the rear of 62
inches-making a 40- by 62-inch machine,
662. Setting a Thresher.-Many threching-machine operators do not
pay as much attention to the setting of the threshing machine before start-
ing work as they should. Many times they just swing the thresher
around in position, dig under the wheel that seems to be high to bring it
down to what seems to be a proper level, bring the tractor up, put on the
drive belt, and go ahead. Of course, the grain can be threshed when
no care at all is taken in setting, but the amount of grain that is secured
is materially decreased.
To set a threshing machine properly, an ordinary carpenter's level
should be used to see that the machine is level both lengthwise and cross-
wise. The level should be put on some part of the frame which is rigid so
that there will be no mistake in getting it level. When set level, the
sieves and screens cltn be given the proper inclination for good cleaning.
If the machine is lower in front than in the rear, the grain, chaff, and
straw may be retarded, causing the conveyor to choke.
Under some conditions, a thresher will do slightly better work if set
lower at the re~r than at the front, but most threshers will operate best
when setting level. If the thresher is not setting level crosswise, the grain
may overload the sieve on the side which is lower and the other side be
practically clear. When such conditions prevail, it is difficult to adjust
the sieve to do a good cleaning and separating job.
In the setting of any machine, the direction of the prevailing wind
should be considered. Generally, it is best to set a thresher quartering
with the wind than it is to set it in direct line. This is especially true
when steam tractors are used. It reduces the danger of fire from sparks
of the engine; then, too, the men do not have so much dirt to work in.
It will also help in the feeding.
663. Fire.-In case of fire, quick work must be done to prevent the
loss of the machine. The quickest way of pulling the separator away
from the straw stack is to pull it out by the belt, having a man get at each
wheel of the thresher to help start it. A better method is to have a rope
attached to the separator and to the tractor, ready in case of an emer-
gency. When this is done, the belt can be slipped off and the thresher
drawn out with the rope, eliminating any danger of injuring the belt.
664. Recleaners.-Where there is much foreign grass seed or other
dockage, it is desirable to reclean the seed before marketing. One type
332 . FARM MACHINERY AN~ EQUIPMENT
of cleaner consists of a number of sieves and screens through which the

grain is run, being entirely separate from the screens and sieves oT the
thresher proper. The latest type of recleaning machinery is made of
aluminum disks, as shown in Fig. 518. Both sides of these disks contain
small undercut pockets and, when set up, the disks are mounted 2%
inches apart on a shaft which rotates about 60 revolutions per minute.
As it rotates through the grain, the wheat is picked IIp by the pockets and
deposited separate from the grass seed.
FIG. 518.- Disk recleaner.
555. Cost of Threshing.- The cost of threshing is compared with

other methods of harvesting in Table XIX. The cost for threshing is
figured at 10 cents per bushel for a 15-bushel yield.
There are four methods of threshing from which to choose: hire the
custom thresherman, belong to a large cooperatively owned threshing
ring, be a member of a small ring, or be an owner operator. The choice of
the method often depends upon the location of the section and the
prevailing rates.
556. Capacity of Threshers.-There are so many variable factors
which will affect the rate of threshing, that no definite figures can be
given for the different sizes of threshers . . Some of the factors involved
are: kind of grain, condition of grain, yield of grain, condition of machine,
power available, rate of feeding, wastage of grain, and the general design
GRAIN THRESHERS 333
of the machine. One company, with reservations, gives the approximate

capacity of the various sizes of machines that it manufactures as shown
in the following table:
TABLE XVliI.-CAPACITY FOR WHEAT AND OATS PER HOUR OF VARIOUS.
SIZES OF TIfRESHER
Bushel per hour

Size of
thresher
Wheat Oats
20 b y 28 30 to 50 60 to 90
22 by 36 60 to 90 100 to 175
28 by 46 80 to 125 150 to 225
28 b y 50 90 to 140 175 to 260
32 by 54 100 to 150 190 to 300
36 by 58 120 to 175 220 to 340
40 by 62 155 to 210 250 to 400
"
557. The Grain-shock Sweep.-Figure 519 shows a sweep rake
especially designed to handle shocks of grain. It is mounted on the front
of a tractor and equipped with a ,. -
high back and sides to keep the
bundles from sliding off the long
rake teeth. In loading the sweep
the long teeth slide under the shocks
without much agitation, and, there-
fore, not much grain is lost. After
the sweep is loaded the· teeth are
raised with a power lift.
PEANUT THRESHERS AND PICKERS

The method of gathering the
peanuts from the vine after they FIG. 519.- Grain-shock sweep rake that
have been dug and cured is a very will carry from five to eigh t shocks to a
slow and tiresome proce 's unless load.
improved machinery is used. The old primitive way of gathering them
from the viDE. was by picking them by band. The average picker, when
picking by hand, can pick only about 8 to 12 bushels per day. With the
scarcity of labor and the improvement of peanut-picking machinery, hand
picking has been clisplaced by improved machinery in the peanut-
growing sections. There are two types of machines used for removing
peanuts from the vines: the thresher and the picker.
558. Peanut Thresher.-The peanut thresher is a cylinder type of
machine similar to the regular grain thresher in all respects with the
exception of size and a few other minor changes. The vines are fed
into the cylinder and the cylinder teeth jerk the vines between the
concave teeth, thus threshing the pods of peanuts from the vines. The
vines are then carried back over the straw racks where they a!-e sifted
and drawn back into the stacking apparatus. One objection to this
type of machine is the tendency to break the pods, shelling out and
injuring the peanut. It is necessary to run the cylinder rather slowly to
overcome this tendency. Around 400 revolutions pel' minute is the
average speed. -
559. The Peanut P icker.-The other type of picking machine differs
materially in principle from the cylinder machine and is shown in Fig,
520. The picking is done by dragging the vines over wire mesh screen
FIG. 520.- Peanut picker equipped with recleaner and bagging attachment.
in such a way that the nuts fall through and are brushed off from the
lower side. There is practically no tendency to break and injure the pods.
Very little power is req uired for operation since the 5- or 6-hmsepower
gasoline engine is sufficient. These machines are easily provided w,h
attachments for cleaning and removing the small stems from the pods
and turning out a better grade of nuts. The capacity of this type of
machine depends upon the design and t he condition of the peanuts, about
250 bushels per day being an average.
THRESHING COWPEAS
When it 'is desired to harvest cowpeas or field peas in large quantities
for seed, it is necessary to remove the peas from the hulls either by beating
or by flailing or by running them through some type of thresher. If
they are to be t hreshed by being spread on the ground and beat en out,
and the hulls then separated from the peas, it is a very slow, t edious,
and dirty process. A better method is to u se an ordinary grain thresher,
running the cylinder at a comparatively low speed.
There are small cowpea hulling machines that can be secured . Where
the small farmer desires to harvest and save his own seed, a machine
GRAIN THRESHERS 335
can be obtained at a fairly low price and is of great help. It also can
be used for hulling beaThS and other similar crops.
THRESHING VELVET BEANS
The veh.et bean produces very long vines covering corn stalks or
such t~ compl~tely, forming a matted mass. It is next to impos-
sible to cut this crop with a mowing machine and harvest it like any
other hay crop. It is usually left in the field and the stock turned in
to do the harvesbng. But some means must be provided to secure a
sufficient quantity of seed for each year's planting. The beans must be
picked from the vines by hand. They, then, must be shelled. The
hull is very hard and thick and a special type of machine is necessary
for bursting the hull open, allowing the beans to fall free.
CHAPTER XXVII
COMBINED HARVESTER-THRESHER
The combined harvester-thresher or combine heads the standing
grain, threshes, and cleans it as it moves over the field. It, therefore,
takes the place of and eliminates from the harvest the grain binder, the
header, the stationary thresher, and the tiresome task of sho.king or
stacking the grain, and hauling of the bundles.
The combine is adapted to harvesting all the small grains, soybeans,
grain sorghums, and has been tried out in rice with some success.
560. Types.- There are two general types of combines, the prairie
and the hillside.
FlO. 521.- Combinccl h arvester-thresher.
The prairie-type combine may be ground driven and pulled by

horses; it may have an auxiliary engine and be pulled by either horses
or tractor, as shown in Fig. 521; and it may be drawn by a tractor with
a direct power drive from the tractor.
The hillside-type combine has a leveling device so the machine ca.n
be used on sides of hills. It is also equipped with an auxiliary engine.
561. Sizes.-The size of a combine is governed by the length of the
cutter bar. This is ordinarily 7,8,9, 10, 12, 15, 16, and 20 feet long. A
few machines are used with 24- and 35-foot cutter bars. Table XX,
page 349, shows that the more common srzes are 12- 15-, and 16-foot
machines. "Baby" combines of 5- and 6-foot cuts are now available.
Extensions for the outter bars are used where it is desired to increas3
the size.
336
COMBINED HARVESTER-THRESHER 337
The power required to draw the different size 'combines over the field
varies with the size of the machine. The 9- and lO-foot power take-off
combines require tractors with l5-drawbar horsepower. The same size
machines equipped with an auxiliary engine require about six horses,
or tractors with 9.. to l2-drawbar horsepower. The 20-foot sizes require
tractors wjlv:lO-drawbar horsepower.l
CUTTING UNIT
The part of .the combine that does the cutting or harvesting is fre-
quently referred to as the header. It does not greatly differ from the
FIG. 522.-Pbtform of combine showing action of p:::rts on grain.
FIG. 523.-Auger conveyor for combine platform.
cutting unit of the binder or header except that it must be built stronger,
be adjustable for height, and deliver the cut grain direct to the threshing
unit.
1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 1565, p. 5, 1928.
562. Platform.-The header platform is supported about midway

between the front and m ain t hresher \Vhf-el" by halancing it over the main
axle by beams and weights and springs. Figure 524 shows one method of
balancing the header platform. The •
weight of the platform is counterbalanced
by the weight of the thresher. No weight;::
or springs are used.
The platform can be lowered to w,ithin
A
2 or 3 inches of the ground and raised to
cut 4 feet or more above the ground.
When moving the machine, the platform
G
FIG. 524.-Method of balancing platform. FlG. 525.-Types of cu tter bars
The weight of the t hresh er count.er balanees for combin es: A, standard-type
the weight of t he platform. sickle ba r, three-inch center ; B.
the two-inch cen tcr-type sickle bar ;
C, trash-type sickle bar.
is usually disconnected and carried behind or beside the machine on
transport wheels.
563. Cutter Bar.-Th e cutter-bar parts of a combine are the same as
those for a header (Fig. 525). Wood or steel pitmans a re used to connect
the crank shaft and the sickle. ..
F IG. 526.-Pi ck-up guards.
Where the grain has fallen down, special grain-saving guards will pick
up and save a large percentage of t he grain that otherwise would be lost
(Fig. 526).
COMBINED HARVESTER--T HRESHER 339
564. Canvas.-One canvas or draper running close to the sickle carries

the grain directly into the feeder house. A top elevator canvas is used
on the elevating section to prevent the grain blowing out and to assure
positive and uniform feeding (Fig. 527).
565. Reel.-The reel consists of a number of wide wooden slats well
supported by reel arms. _ It is driven by shafts and gears. A snap clutch
FIG. 527.-Section of cutter bar, platform canvas, and elevator canvas.
prevents breakage of reel and driving parts. A hinged slat is now used
on some machines.
THRESHING UNIT
The threshing ullit of the combined harvester-thresher performs its
work very much like a regular stationary thresher. The various func-
tions performed are: feeding, threshing, separating, cleaning, elevating
grain to the cleaning device and then to a grain tank or wagon, and
spreading or dumping the straw on the ground behind the machine.
Figme 528 shows a cross-sectional view of a combine threshing unit.
066. Feeder House.-From the platform the grain is delivered to the
feeder house, heads first . The grain is conveyed to the threshing
cylinder by an endless carrier. The wooden slats of the carrier slide
on the smooth smface of the sheet-metal bottom of the feeder house and
positively convey all grain, chaff, and straw to the cylinder. A beater
just in front of the cylinder assists the feeder carrier in feeding the
grain to the cylinder (Fig. 528).
567. Cylinder and Concaves.- The cylinder and concaves are con-
structed much the same as a thresher. Most machines use teeth on the
cylinder and concaves but at least two machines use the rasp-bar type
(Fig. 529). The cylinder bearings are either ball or roller. The
concaves can be adjusted both sidewise and up and down from outside
the machine.
Fro. 528. -Sectiona l , -jE'1V of comhilH' sho win g path of gr.,ill thro ugh machine.
FIG. 529.-Sectional view of combine equipped wi t h rasp-bar oylinder and con caves. Note
weed scr een at top.
568. Separating Apparatus.- The usual grates, beaters, and check

hoards are used in the combine separating apparatus. There are two
methods of conveying the straw through combines.
•
COMBINED HARVESTER-THRESHER; 341
One method uses straw racks. These racks may be in
one or four
sections. Where four sections are used, as shown in Fig. 531, they
agitate and kick the st'-aw backward by being mounted on a four-throw
crank shaft at the rear and rocker arm at the front .
elevodor comvCfS
FiG. 530.-Cross-section of combine with all parts named.
Another method makes use of carriers; usually two. One is located

just back of the cylinder and may be termed the front or grain carrier,
'while the other is in the rear part of the machine and is termed the
. rear or straw carrier.
FIG. 531.-Rear view of straw racks and grain pan.
As the straw passes from the front to the rear carrier, it comes in
contact with three or four beaters which tear it up and aid in the separa-
tion of the grain from the straw and chaff.
F rom the beaters the straw falls on the rear carrier and is conveyed
out of the machine. If straw racks are used, the straw is delivered
FIG. 532.-Separator s hoe and recleaner.
directly to them from th e cylinder and beater. The straw is t hen kicked
back through the machine. The grain falls upon a grain pan underneath
the straw racks and is carried back and delivered into the separating shoe
- thence to the recleaner.
FIG. 533.-Self-leveling device for combine.
";69. Separator Shoe.-The grain with some chaff falls upon a grain
pan and into the separator shoe. In the shoe is a fan which directs a
•
blast of air through the grain as it falls upon and passes through a sieve,
clearing out some chaff.
FIG. 534.- Grain tank mounted on combine.
The grain then gravitates into an auger which carries it outside the
machine into an elevator which, in turn, elevates it up to the recleaner
located above the separating apparatus (Fig. 532) . Any tailings that
may result are returned by the tailings elevator to the feeder house.
570. The Recleaner.-A special distributor auger spreads the grain
over the recleaner sieves. A recleaner fan
directs a blast of air up through the grain as
it passes through th~ sieve, removing the
chaff. The cleaned grain falls upon the
inclined shoe bottom and slides down into
an auger trough where an auger delivers it
to a second elevator which elevates it into-
t he grain tank (Fig. 534) or conveys it to a
wagon drawn beside the machine.
571. Weed Screen.-Where weeds have
grown up and gone to seed by harvest
t ime, it is essential that the weed seeds FlO. 535.-Revolving weed screen.
be removed from the grain. Figure 535 shows a weed screen used on
a combine. This machine consists of a revolving drum with elongated
holes large enough to permit small weed seeds to fall through but not
the grain. Other machines are equipped with disk cleaners.
572. Grain Weigher.--Some machines are equipped with a grain
weigher to weigh and record the number of bushels threshed . The
•
weigher receives the grain from the elevator.
71G. ·536.-End "iew of the pi ck-up attachment, showing the drive m ech anism exposed.
573. Straw Spreaders.- As the straw passes from the straw racks
or straw carrier it may fall directly on the ground in a windrow or onto
a straw spreader (Fig. 528) which scatters it on the ground behind the
combine.
574. Auxiliary Engine.- To operate both the header unit , and the
threshing unit, an auxiliary engine of ample power should be' mounted
FIG. 537.-Sm.all power take-off driven combine harvesting soybeans. Note the combine
is equipped with rubber tires.
on the machine. A few small machines, however, receive their power

direct from the tractor engine.
An auxiliary engine is mounted either to the front of the machine
(Fig. 528) and t he power transmitted to the cylinder by belt, or it is
placed on the side of the machine over or near the main axle. With the
latter arrangement, the engine may be so placed that the crank shaft of
t he engine and the cylinder shaft are connected by means of a clutch.
Such a connection is~ot always pos§ible and the power is transmitted to
FIG. 538.-Sectional view of com bine shown in Fig. 537. Note construction of cylinder and
the use of V -belts.
the cylinder shaft by high-speed chains or belt. The engine is equipped
with a governor which can be adjusted to give the proper speed.
575. Windrow Pick-up.-In sections where grain does not ripen
uniformly the &rain is cut and windrowed,
then left until the moisture content of the
grain is low enough to prevent damage in
storage. Figure 536 shows a section of a
typical windrow pick-up attachment.
576. Special-crop Attachments.-Special
at tachments are available for combines so
that a number of special crops can be har-
vested with this type of machine. Crops
that can be harvested are soybeans, peas,
beans, flax, clover, alfalfa, lespedeza, and
grain sorgbams.
The "baby" combine, similar to the one
shown in Figs. 537 and 538, is recommended
for soybeans and other crops. Hurst! lists FIG. 539.-Reel hoop and out-
side d'vider rod to divide tangled
several features essential for combines to vines and prevent winding on reel
successfully han'e>:l t, soybe:uns. They are: shaft.
a narrow cut of 5 or 6 feet, threshing cylinder designed to handle
large masses of straw and vines, low cut within 2 inches of the ground,
1 Agr. Eng. , Vol. 16, No.6, p. 223, 1935.
gentie reel action, over-all width of machine .not to exceed 12 feet, weight
of from 2,500 to 3,000 pounds, cost not to exceed $500, suitable for other
crops, driven by power take-off of tractor, quick and easy adjustments,
and flexible mountings of pneumatic tires or springs. . '
It has been found that a reel hoop and special dividers are ne'c essary
in harvesting soybeans (Fig. 539) .
577. Advantages of the Combine.-In comparison with other methods
of harvesting and threshing, as reported by farmers, the advantages are:'
1. The saving in harvesting and threshing costs.
2. The decreased labor.
3. Thc elimination of hired help.
4. The earlier clearing of the field for tillage operations.
5. The distribution of the straw on the land.
6. The earlier marketing of the crop.
578. Disadvantages of the Combine.-The disadvantages 'of the

combine enumerated are:
1. The large investment necessary .
2. The large amount of power required .
3. The grain is more likely to be damp.
4. Greater risk to crops from storms and hail.
5. The loss of straw for feed and bedding unless additional labor is expended in
collecting the straw after the combine.
579. Cost of Combining.- The various items of cost in harvesting

with a combine are operating and fixed costs. •
Operating expenses consist of the costs of fuel and lubricants, use
of tractor, labor, and repairs.
Fixed charges are for depreciation and interest on investment.
Taxes, insurance, and cost of housing may also be added.
Table XIX shows the various items of cost per acre for both oper-
ating expenses and fixed costs; for a 10- and 15-foot combine, a 7-foot
binder, and a 12-foot header.
With an assumed yield of 15 bushels per acre, this would be equiva-
lent to an average of approximately 10 cents per bushel with the combine,
22 cents per bushel with the header, and 28 cents per bushel with the
binder.
If depreciation, interest on investment, and insurance were added,
the cost per bushel for the different methods would be, approximately,
14, 23, and 29 cents, respectively.
The graph shown in Fig. 540 gives a comparison of the harvesting
costs for combines, headers, and binders. Figure 540A is based on
Table XIX. Figure 540B shqws the estimate of immediate costs
I U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' B1Lll. 1565, 1928.
for different machines with no allowance made for unpaid labor, power
or interest on the investment.
TABLE XIX.-Ci'tARGES PER ACRE WITH DIFFERENT HARVESTING METHODS'
Per acre charges

.
.. 10-foot IS-foot 7-foot 12-foot
combine I combine binder header
I te.!!L¢-cbst I I- 1
Quan- ! Cost 1Quan- ! Cost

tity tity
I Q~an-
tJty
1 Cost 1Quan-! Cost
tity
Man Iabor,l.man hours. 0.69 $0.41 0 . 65 $0.39 3.6 $1.80 2.8 $1.40
Horse labor,' horse
hours ...... , ... . .. . ..' . .. . . . . . .. . ...... 5.9 0.59 4.1 0.41
Tractor ... .. ..... . . , . .. . ' 0.60 . ... o 60
FueI3 gallon .... . .. .. . 1.30 0 .32 0.361 .43
OiP ga llons . .. . . . . . . . 0 .04 0 .03 0.05
0 .04
Gre ase, pounds ... . .. 0 .06 0 .01 0.05
0.01 .
Twine,' pcunds . . . . ... . .... . . . . ...
.. . . ... .. . 2 .0 0 .28
Repairs .... . ..... .. ' . . .. . ... .
0.10 0.10 . .. 0 .05 . 0 .05 ..
Threshing· ...... .. .. .. .,
.. ...... . ., .. . .. ... . . . . 1.50 . .. 1.50
--- - - - --- ---- --- - - - --- ---
Variable costs. .. , . . .. . $1.47 . .. . $1 . 50 1 $4.22 . . $3.36
Annual charges
..
Depreciations ... ... .. . ... . 1$152.001 . . 00 .. . 50 . .. 1$13.33
1$251. 1 1$22 . 1
InteresF .... . . ..... .. . . . , . 37.80 . ... 62.52 .. . 6 . 7£ . . . 6.00
1 Labor on combines charged at 60 cents p er hour; on binder and headers at 50 cents per hour.
2 Horse Jabor charged at 10 cent s p er hour.
3 Fuel charged at 25 cents, oil at 75 cents per gallon.
• Twine charged a t 14 cents per pound.

, Threshing charged at 10 c~ n ts per bushel; 15-bushel yield assumed.
• Based on 8.3 yea rs life for combine, 10 years for binder, 15 years for header.
7 Annual charge per machine b ased on one-half the first cost at 6 per cent.
• U. S. Dept. AUT. T ech. Bull. 70, p. 31, 1928.
580. Acres Cut by Combines.-Most people think of the capacity

of a machine as the amount of work it can do in a day's time. The
principal factors that influence the rate of cutting are: the size of the
machine, rate of travel, and yield of grain.
Reynoldson Kifer, Martin, and Humphries l calculated, from 214
reports of combines equipped with auxiliary engines, that the rate of
cutting would be increased 0.27 acre by the addition of each foot to the
length of the cutter bar.
1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 70, p . 14, 1928.

They also stated that

. on this basis a 10-foot machine in 20-bushel wheat, t raveling 2.5 miles per
hour, should cut 20.5 acres in a 10-hour working day. A 12-foot macbineol'hould
COST
HRACR[ ..
~OST
DOLLARS
OF" HA1RVESTING iNo THRESL'NG WITH
( AJ BINDER. HEADER . OR COM B INE .YIELD
6
_'_0>__
~~-\ -_
I~ BUSHE:L~ PER ACRE!
ill -- 8 1
,"dO' -- 0-®- -- }"eod<, --®-yombio.
5
'(i) I
--<D
-- I - -
lFoot
J
I - 1 11 Foo t ~ JOond lS Foo f'
~""r" '-"T-------'---------
I "" ....
.. r-~
' 0-
I~~=~=~~--~ ___ J .
3 -~~
"'-~I
,
o o Z 3 ~ 5 6 7
H UN DRe DS OF ACRE S C UT AN NUALLY
7
(8)- -
I 1 I
DIRECT EXPENSE: OF" HARVESTING. THRESHING.AND
! ·
6 -- -HAULING GRAIN ON FARM WITH LABOR OF 2 - - - - - J
s
I __ 0>__
MEN AVAILABLE. YIELD 15
SU5HELS ~ER ACRE I
\_-+-_____® __ }sin'''. - 0 - }"eOd., --®--}Combin. ~I-_ _- I
- -(i)-- 1Foo' - @- 12 Foot ~ 10 and " F.b o t .
o 2 3 ~ 5 6
HUND REDS Of' AC R es CUT " NNUALl.Y
FIG. MO.-Comparative harvesting, threshing. and ha uling cost with binders. -headers, and
combines , (U. S. D ept. Agr. T ech. Bull. 70. p. 31, 1928.)
cut 25.9 acres, a IS-foot machine 34 'acres, a 16-foot machine 36.7, and a 20-foot
machine 47.5 acres.
A I O-foot combine should harvest 375 acres in a IS-day harvest season. T he
minimum profitable acreage in the Great Plains for a machine of this size is about
150 acres; the maximum is about 640 acres. A 15-foot combine should harvest
525 acres in 15 days, with a minimum of 200 and a maximum of 1,100
acres.
Table XX shows the average rate of travel, the length of day, the
!1cres cut per hour, and per foot of width by comlines of different types
and sizes. \
681. Harvesting Losses.-The figures given by Reynoldson, Kifer,
Martin, and Humphries show that the average harvesting loss with
combines is 2.6 per cent of the total yield as compared with 3.3 per cent
for a header and 6.1 per cent for a binder. The actual loss of grain cut
with the combine av'eraged 32 pounds per acre, as compared with 40
pounds witMhe header and 74 pounds with the binder.
TABLE XX.-ACRES CUT PER HOUR AND PER FOOT OF WIDTH BY COMBINES OF
DIFFERENT TYPES AND SIZES'
Cut
Rate
., Yield of
per
Width Com- Length Cut Cut hour
per trav-
of bines, of per per per
Type of combine acre, el,
cut, num- day, day, hour, foot
bush- miles
.'
, feet ber hours acres acres of
els per
width,
huur
acres
Tractor drawn with PO\':-

.
er take off ............ 8 25 17 2.4 10.3 16 1.6 0.19
10 10 24 2.7 9.8 26 2.6 0.26
Tractor drawn with aux- 12 56 17 2.8 10.2 27 2.6 0.22
iliary engine .... :,' ..... 15 51 18 .2.8 10.3 35 3.4 0.23
16 104 21 2.8 10.7 40 3.7 0.24
20 3 25 2.4 10.7 48 4.5 0.22
.. , .
r
All tractor drawn ........ 249 19 2.8 10.4 33 3.2
2 3 11 2.5 10.0 23 2.3 0.19
Horse drawn ............ 15 3 13 2.7 10.2 30 2.9 0.19
16 2 14 2.5 11.5 38 3.3 0.21
All horse drawn ......... .. , . 8 12 2.5 10.3 29 2.8
1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 70, p. 40, 1928•

. -. ......
CHAPTER XXVIII ·
CORN SHELLERS, HUSKERS, AND SHREDDERS

CORN SHELLERS
After the corn has been harvest.ed it. is necessary to prepare it for the
market by separating the kernels hom the cob. There are two types of
corn shellers: "spring," and" cylinder."
582. Spring Shellers.- Spring shellers are of various sizes listed
according to the number of holes provided for shelling. The sizes are
one-hole, two-hole, four-hole, and six-hole. The one-hole and two-hole
•
FIG. 541.-Sectional view of one-hole spring corn sheller.
sizes are small hand or power shellers, while the four-hole and six-hole
sizes are larger power shellers. Figure 541 shows the various parts of a
one-hole sheller, while Fig. 542 shows a two-hole sheller.
Referring to Fig. 542, the shelling operation is as follows : The corn is
delivered to the feeder A. The ears fall on the feeder chain B and are
carried into the picker wheels C. The beater D aids in feeding and pre-
350
CORN SHELLERS, HUSKERS, AND SHREDDERS 35 1
vents the ears from brhlging. The kernels are shelled from the cob as the
ears pass between the runners E and F and the rag iron G. The tension
on the rag iron can be adjusted by the thumb nut H so that small or large
ears can be shelled. .
The shelled corn drops through the shelling wheels onto incline I.
The cobs, husks, and silks drop onto a wire cob rakE~.J which is agitated
by the eccentric sprocket K. The shelled corn that passes on with the
cobs and that from incline I fall through the wire cob carrier J onto the
-
cleaning sieve L. As the corn falls from the sieve L to the pan below, it
FIG. 542.-Sectional view of two-hole spring corn sheller.
is subjected to a blast of air which separates the chaff, silks, and small cob
ends from the shelled corn. The grit and sand are removed as the shelled
corn gravitates down over the sand screen N. The clean corn is deliv-
ered to the boot 0 and carried outside the machine. The cobs, silks, and
other foreign material pass over the cob rake into the swinging cob
stacker P .
583. Cylinder Shellers.-The cylinder shellers have a different shell-
ing device from that of the spring shellers. In general, the device is
composed of a series of adjustable staves, forming a cylinder, in which
revolves the main shaft to which are keyed a series of shelling rings (Fig.
543). It is the action of these rings revolving the ear around the cylinder
which shells the kernels off the cob.
The complete operation of shelling is as follows: Referring to Fig. 544,
the ear corn is delivered into the feeder A which carries it up and drops
it t hrough chute B into the feeding auger C. The ears pass between the
shelling staves or con caves D and the shelling rings E. The staves can
be adjusted by cranks F. The cobs pass through openings G and fall

upon the vibrating cleaning shoe I. As the husks, silks, and foreign
matter pass through openings G, this material is agitated by the r~volving
i.
FIG. 543.-Shelling cylinder and staves. The staves are removed so that the shelling
cylinder can be seen.
paddle H which assists in separating much of the shelled corn from the
foreign matter before it reaches the vibrating shoe. Most of the shelled
1<' 10. 544.-8ectional view of cylinder corn sheller, showing action of the various parts.
corn passefl downward through the shelling cage onto pan J. The corn
that passes onto the vibrating shoe I, with the cobs and husks, is separated
by the ...ribrating motion of this shoe and falls through onto the lower
CORN SHELLERS, HUSKERS, AND SHREDDERS 353
cleaning shoe K. From this shoe, it falls through onto pan L as it gravi-
tates towards the eievator auger O. It passes over sand screen M which
separates the sand and grit from the shelled corn. As the shelled corn
passes down from the upper cleaning shoe I and from the shelling cage
toward the auger 0, it is subjected to a blast of air fro.I;U fan N which takes
out silks, chaff, and cob ends. The corn then faus into the auger 0 and
is delivered to the elevator P which elevates and delivers it to the wagon
box through spout Q.. As the cobs pass toward the ~nd of the shoe I, they
- .
are subjected to suction from fan S which separates the dust, dirt, and
AUXILIARY
~ SNAPPI NG
ROLLS
RETARD
, ROLLS
HUSKING
ROLLS
HUS KING ROLLS TIGHTENING SPRlNG
FIG. 545.-0verhead view of husking rolls.
husks from the cobs and delivers this foreign matter in a separate pile,
tlirough pipe R. The cobs free of all foreign matter are delivered into the
cob stacker T which elevates and deposits the cobs away from the
machine.
584. Capacity of Shellers.-The capacity of the one-hole spring sheller
is limited 1:;y the power available and the requirements. The power two-
hole spring sheller will shell from 60 to 125 bushels per hour; the four-hole
from 150 to 250 bushels per hour; the six-hole 250 to 400 bushels per hour.
One company makes an eight-hole sheller which has a capacity of 400 to
600 bushels per hour.
The smaller sized cylinder shellers have a capacity of 100 to 250 bushels
per hour of snapped corn and from 250 to 400 bushels per bour of husked
354 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT •
corn. The larger sized cylinder shellers will shell 200 to 425 bushels of
snapped corn and from 600 to 1,000 bushels husked corn.
HUSKER-SHREDDERS
The husker-shredder is a machine which removes the ears from the
stalks; then, it removes the husks from the ears and also shreds t\1e stalks,
FIG. 546.-Sectional view of husker-shredder
blowing them with the husks into the barn (Fig. 546). The machine
handles corn that has been cut and shocked. The husker-shredder husks
quickly and makes practically all of the stove'r available for feed.
585. Size.-The size of a husker-shredder is designated by the.number
of husking rolls with which the machine is equipped and is known as a
FIG. 547.-Knife-shredder cylinder.
two-, four-, six-, eight-, or ten-roll machine. Figure 545 shows the
arrangement of the rolls for an eight-roll machine. The husking rolls
operate in pairs.
586. Operation.- A cross-sectional view of a husker-shredder is shown
in Fig. 546. The stalks with the ears on them are thrown on the feed
conveyor, and the feeder head feeds them into the snapping rolls where
the ears are removed from the stalks. The ears drop down upon the
husking rolls where the husks are removedJ after which the ears pass out
CORN SHELLERS, HUSKERS, AND SHREDDERS 355
of the machine, ""hile the husks are carried back over the shaker. Any
kernels of corn that might have been shelled hy the husking rolls are
removed by the shaker.
FIG. 548.-Sbredding and cutting cylinders.
As the stalks pass through the snapping roils, they come in contact
. with the shredding cylinder (Fig. 547) which thoroughly. shreds the
leaves and stalks. The shredder material or st01.'er is carried to the
blower where it is blown into the barn or other storage place, Sometimes
a cutting cylinder (Fig. 548) is used instead of the shredding cylinder.
The stalks are cut into short lengths like silage .
•
CHAPTER XXIX
THE COTTON GIN AND EQUIPMENT

The most important operation in the production and preparation of
cott.on for the market is the separation of the lint from the seed, a process
known as ginning.
The history of the practical cultivation of cotton in America dates
from 1621, when it was introduced into what is now the state of Virginia,
with seed from the East Indies. At that time the lint was picked from
the seed by hand, as shown in Fig. 549.
FIG. 549.- Negroes picking lint from cotton seed before the invention of the cotton gin.
The first known mechanical means of separating the seed from the
lint is shown in Fig. 550. This primitive device would handle sea-island
or long-staple cotton but was practically useless when applied to short-
staple cotton.
Consequently, when Eli Whitney invented the saw gin, a model of
which is shown in Fig. 551, it proved to be an epochal event. The patent
was issued to Eli Whitney on Mar. 14, 1794, signed by George Washing-
ton, President; Edmund Randolph, Secretary of State; and William
Bradford, Attorney General.
687. Gin Types.-There are two types of gins, the roller and saw.
T he former is not extensively used while the latter is practically a uni-
versal type.
356
THE COTTON GIN AND EQUIPMENT 357
THE ROLLER GIN
Figure 552 shows the working parts of a roller gin. The lint is pulled
from the seed by' a walrus hide covered
roller B assisted by the fixed knife D and
a moving knife F.
A roller gi~ has a very small capac-
i ty being about one bale in ten hours.
THE SAW GIN
Some of the large custom ginning
plants or--toaay often require an invest-
ment of $60,000 or $90,000. During a
good crop year such a plant may gin as
FIG. 550.-The Churka, the first- FIG. 551.-Model of Whitney's first saw
known cotton gin. . gin.
many as 5,000 bales of 500 pounds each. The small plantation gin,
FIG. 552.-Cross-section of roller gin.
which may not gin more than 200 bales per season, does not require
such a large investment.
HARVESTING
CONDI TION I NG
PRECLEANING Air-tine cleaning
PREFEtDING
Pneumatic distributor
FEEDING
GINNING
lint flue
Condense,..
DISPOSAL
Tramper
B.l. pre..
FIG. 553.-Diagram showing various steps and processes involved in ginning cotton.
(U. S. D ept. Aar. Farmers' Bull. 1748.)
FIG. 554.-0ne-story electrically operated gin showing mechanical dietributor and drown
press.
THE COTTON GI N AND EQ UI PMEN'I' 359
688. Gin Outfits.-In general, there are two methods of instalr . gin
outfits. These are: a one-story construction, as shown in Fig. 5.J':l and
a two-story system, shown in Fig. 555. There are many arguments for
and against each method of installation but it seems that the .one-story
outfit is the more commonly used. It is obvious that a gin instated on
the ground will give less vibration, resulting in less wear and deteriol~ation
of the machinery. When placed on a concrete floor, the fire risk is less
which in turn lowers the cost of insurance.
ELEVATOR
The elevator consists of a telescoping pipe through which the cotton
is sucked from the wagon, trailer, or truck up to a separator where the
cotton is removed from the air and
dropped into the cleaning apparatus
or into the distributing system .
DISTRIBUTORS
There are three types of distrib-
utors for distributing cOttOJl to the
feeder chutes, namely, the pneumatic,
belt, and screw conveyor.
589. The Pneumatic Distributor.
This type of distributor consists of
two pipes extending over the gin
stands. The double pipes, as shown
in Fig. 556, are joined together but
are separated by a heavy wire-screen
partition. The pipe that draws the
cotton from the wagon is called tbe
cotton pipe, and the one that connects
with the fan is called the air pipe.
690. BeltDistributor.-Tbe opera-
tion of the belt-distributor system,
is the same as in the case of the
FIG. 556.-Sectional view of pneumatic pneumatic system up to the point
elevator showing cotton and air pipes. where the seed cotton is taken out of
the air. The same type of fans, suction pipe, and telescope is used in
each system.
The apparatus for taking the seed cotton from the air in the belt dis-
tributor system is termed a separator dropper, or vacuum dropper. In
general, the separator or dropper consists of a wire-mesh screen through
which the air may pass, but the cotton may not (Fig. 557). The screen
is so curved or shaped that cotton in its rapid travel in the air-suction
current strikes the curved surface of the screen obliquely so that the
cotton by gravity falls to the belt of the distributor, which distributes it

to the various gin stands. •
Bar screen __ _,
r----n-~~~T::~ ,- Va cvvm cofton reeder

Splder
, 8y pass valve
tJy pass operafing) ropes
Breaker bpr-- Conveyor clisfn'bvtor
Dvsfchvfe/
Unf (Ive---
FIG. 557.-Sectional view of gin system.
The belt is 8, 10, or 12 inches in width and has metal spikes some
4 inches long fixed to it at regular intervals. The belt is inclosed in a
double boxing so t hat when the
seed cotton falls upon the upper
or top part, it is carried around
into the lower section and dis-
tributed to the feeders. When t he
feeders are full, the surplus cotton
is carried to the end of the belt box
and dropped on the floor. The
surplus cotton is called the overflow.
When all the cotton has been
removed from the wagon, the suc-
tion is switched and the cotton
from the overflow again passes
through the separator and belt
distribu tor.
In the west and other sections
of the cotton belt where various FIG. 558.-End view of double-screw con-
veyor distributor.
form of cleaners are interposed,
the belt distributor is used extensively.
691. Screw-conveyor Distributor.-The screw-conveyor type of

distributor system may consist of either a single-screw (Fig. 5g7) or a
double-screw conveyor (Fig. 558). The screws or spiral augers push the
cotton along the conveyor trough and drop the cotton into the 'feeder
chutes of the various gin" stands. If all feeder chutes become full, the
surplus cotton is discharged at the end on the floor.
CLEANER FEEDERS
692. Feeder.-The feeder is interposed between the distributing

chutes and the gin stand. It really connects the elevating and dis-
tributing system with the gin.
FIG, 55!l.-Sectional view of feeder cleaner.
At the top of the feeder and forming a bottom for the chute are
located two fluted rollers (Figs. 557 and 559) which slowly feed the seed
cotton into the cleaning division of the feeder.
693. Cleaner.-The cleaner parts consist of rapidly revolving drums
or cylinders which are studded with spikes (Fig. 559). This drum is
usually operating at a speed of approximately 300 revolutions per minute.
The projecting spikes strike the cotton as it is brought down by the
fluted rollers and knock it against a heavy wire screen which partially
encircles the drum. The cotton is forced along over the surface of the
wire screen around the periphery of the drum and discharged by centrif-
THE COTTON GIN A ND EQ UIPMENT 363
ugal force at a point just above t he front or breast of the gin. Usually
a hood directs the cotton downward int o the breast of the gin.
The beating action of the spiked drum removes a portion of the
dirt, dust , and trash which drops through the screen and is carried out
by a screw conveyor. r
594. Rate of Feeding.-Much de-
pends upon the rate at which the
seed cotton is fed into the gin. The
amount of cot ton fed is regulated by
the speed rt. .which the fluted rollers
revolve.
There are 'many types of feeder
gearing to operate t he feeder rollers. ,• • •
The co.nventional type consists of a.
ratchet and pawl operated by an
eccentric on the cleaner drum shaft
(Fig. 560). Worm gears (Fig. 561)
and a paper friction drive are also used.
FIG. 560.- Automatic ratchet-feed er
THE GIN gearing.
The function of the gin is t o separate the lint from t he seed. The
principal parts necessary to perform this function are t he saws, ribs, and
a brush or a blast of air for cleaning the lint from the saws~
FIG. 561.-Feeder cleaner equipped wit h worm-gear feed control.
595. Types.-There are three types of gins, depending upon the

type and number of ribs: the plain, the single-rib huller , and the double~
rib huller. These are shown in Fig. 562., The plain or single-breast gin is
only suitable for ginning clean cotton that has no boll, hulls, or trash.
The double-rib huller breast or front is used most, because it gives protflc-
tion to the gin saws and eliminates foreign matter like burs, hulls, and leaf
trash.
696. Size of Gins.-The size of a single-gin stand is determined b¥
the number of saws on the shaft which is usually 70 or 80. The size
of the ginnery is determined by the number of gin stands and the number
of saws per stand and is given as a 4-70 or 5-80. This means that there
are 4 or 5 gin stands with 70 or 80 saws per stand. Such an outfit is
also referred to as a single battery. A double-battery gin is one with
two sets of gin stands- one set on each side of the building.
Huller fm;a'sf
C
Fro. 562.-Killds of gin breasts or fronts: A, plain brush gin; B, single-n "uller
brush gin; C, double-rib huller brush gin; D, double-rib huller air-blast gin. (U.. .Jept.
Aor. Farmers' Bull. 1748. )
697. Saws.-There are usually 70 or 80 saws in a gin stand, spaced

by space blocks about % inch apart. The saws are 10 or 12 inches in
diameter. The 12-inch size is becoming the standard size. The ·speed
of the saws depends on the type of ginning machinery. In the brush
system the saws operate at a speed of 350 to 450 revolutions per minute.
With the air-blast system, the saws run at a much higher speed. Usually
500 to 700 revolutions per minute. Killough and McNess L found that
the speed at which the gin saws were operated did not seem to have any
marked effect on the grade, length, and strength of the lint, provided
a loose roll and the cleaning apparatus were used. Cotton which was
ginned at a high saw speed using a tight roll was badly napped and
1 Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta: Bull. 416, p. 21, 1930.
lowered the grade accordingly. Bennett 1 secured similar results in
cotton ginning investigations at Stoneville, Miss.
598. Gin Breast or Front.-On the front of the frame and partially
inclosing the saws is attached the breast or front. Figures 562 and 564
show that it is comgosed of the frame containing the first set of
ribs, termed the hulle;,·ibs, the picker rollers, and the circular or elliptical
compartment, called the roll box. 0
The gin breast with single- or double-picking rollers is used almost
exclusively where cotton has many burs, bolls, and trash mixed with
the seed cotton, and ·such cotton as has been gathered, sledded, pulled,
or snapped.
FIG. 563. -Cross-section of huller brush gin.
The cotton falls from the feeder into the huller roll box where it
comes in contact with the picker roller, which is fitted with a number
of projecting spikes. As it revolves the seed cotton is presented to the
segment of saws projecting through the huller ribs (Figs. 563 and 564).
The saws pull the seed cotton through the huller ribs into the roll box,
while the picker roller drops the hulls below.
599. Ribs.-In the plain gins there is only one set of ribs, while on
the huller gins there are two sets. If one refers to Figs. 562 and 564, it is
seen that the hulle1' ribs form a portion of the front of the roll box while
the ginning ribs, the ribs which separate the seed from the lint, form a
portion of the rear part of the roll box.
The saws project through the ginning ribs into the roll box and
engage the cotton fiber. The ribs are spaced close enough together
that the saw may pass between but the cotton seed may not.
The ribs are so shaped that the partially stripped seed are pressed
f'Orward and upward by the pressure of other seed brought forward by
1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull., 503, p . 15, 1936.
-,..
"
.. V •.
t.he saw teet.h as the lint. is engaged. The continuing of t.his process
causes t.he whole mass in the roll box to revolve.
When the lint has been removed from a seed, it falls by gravity
between the saws through an opening to a seed conveyor.
600. Roll Box.-The roll box is the round or elliptical compartment
just above the saws, as shown in Figs. 562 and 564. It is in this com-
partment that the actual ginning takes place. To repeat, the seed cotton ,
is pulled between the huller ribs by the saws, into the roll box. Then, as
the teeth on the saws engage the fiber pulling the seed to the front,
the mass revolves. There is a great deal of argument among ginners as
to whether or not this mass of partially ginned cotton should be tight or
loose. Killough and McNess! and Bennett 2 secured better results in
every case when the roll was set to run loose. The samples of lint were
smoother, showed no gin eutting or napping, and graded higher than lint
taken from cotton which was ginned with a medium or tight roll. A
tight roll often caused the seed to be damaged, and in some cases the
seed were badly hulled.
Usually the rate of feeding determines the degree of tightness of the
roll. Fast feeding will often cause a gin to choke, or the roll to become so
hard and tight within the roll box that it ceases to revolve. The gin
does not perform under such conditions. If the roll is too tight but
continues to revolve, the result is, generally, a napped appearance in the
cotton.
601. Brush System of Removing Lint from Gin Saws.-It is very
essential that the lint be removed from the saws as quickly and thor-
oughly as possible after the saw teeth have passed between the ginning
ribs. The original method was to use a rapidly revolving brush placed
to the rear of the ginning ribs (Fig. 563). As a general rule, the
brush operates at a surface speed of about three times that of the I
saw.
It is a debatable question whether the lint is removed from th~ saws
by actual contact of the bristles or by the current of air created by the
rapidly revolving brush. In either case, the lint is removed from the
saw teeth and blown by the blast of air creat.ed by the brush into the lint
flue located at the rear of the gin stand.
602. Air-blast System of Removing Lint from Gin Saws.-In the air-
blast method of removing the lint from the gin saws, a fan.is used to force
a high-speed jet of air across a section of the saw teeth in such a manner
that the lint will be blown through the lint passage directly into the lint
flue (Figs. 562 and 564). The air-blast system is a comparatively new
departure in gin manufacturing, but it is rapidly gaining favor.
1 Tex ..4gr. Expt. Sia. Bull., 416, p. 21, ~930.
2 U. S. Dept. A.gr. Tech. Bull., 503, p. 15, 1936.
The high velocity of air removes the lint from the gin saws so quickly
that the speed of the saws can be greatly increased when j;his system is
used. It is claimed that gin saws have been run at 1,000 revolutions per
minute without injury to ·t)1e lint. · However, such high speeds are not
advocated until they can lJe proved satisfactory by relia ble research
methods. '
603. Motes.-When either the brush or air blast is used to remove t he
lint from the gin sa\vs, the heavier particles, su ch as immature seed and
small particles of t.rash , ~alle d motes, will by weight gravitate to the lower
edge of the air current and be separated from the lint. Special mote
boards a nd conveyors are provided.
Ovferor /luller Rol/-Box
receIVes Cofton from re,der
FIG. 564,- C ross-section of air-blast gin
Ol)e air-blast gin has a special-shaped air nozzle placed down far '
enough on the sa,Y so that the motes are thrown from the saw by cen-
trifugal force over the nozzle and are not affected by the current of
air which passes from the air nozzle into the lint flue (Fig. 564).
604. Lint Flues.-When the lint is removed from the saws, 'it is in a
loose fluffy condition and practically floats in the air currents produced
by the rapid revolutions of the brush or by the current of air produced
by the fan and emitted through the nozzle of the air blast.
As the lint is blown from the saws, it is conducted by an inclosed
conduit fitted to the rear of the gin, called the gin hood, to the lint flue
(Fig. 565) which also is a conduit for inclosing the air ' current with the
contained cotton lint and conducting it to t he condenser.
605, Condenser,-The condenser consists of a framework containing

either one or two large circular screen drums, with a conduit for an air
outlet. The single-drum type, as shown in Fig. 566, is more often used.
FIG. 565.-Lint flue system.
As th(' liilt is blown from tu(' lint flue, it is maE;sed against the screen
of the drum while the air passes through the wire mesh, thence out the
ends of the screen drum and through dust flues, extending through the roof
of the house, into the open air. The cotton is retarded by the screen
inclosing the circular drum and slowly revolved to a position next to the
press box, where it passes between the do.fling rolls (Fig. 566) and is formed
~IG . 566.-Single-drum condenser. Arrows show direction of air current. Shade'd area
shows travel of cotton.
into a bat. The bat of cotton slides down the inclined chute, or lint
slide, into the press box. Automatic kickers are available that kick the
cotton from the chute into the press box.
THE C01JTON GIll AND EQUIPMENT 369
B4LING APPARATUS
The operation of pressing the cotton into a press box and forming a
bale is the last step .ilL the preparation for the market. The baling
apparatus consists of a press box, a means of pressing the lint into a con-
densed pac'kage, and a tramper.
606. Press Box.-;-The press outfit usually consists of two boxes
arranged side by side and supported by a center column interposed
between them, so they can be revolved under the condenser (Figs. 554
/
FIG. 567.-Up-packing, all-metal press box, showing mechanical tramper at top.
and 567). The box under the lint slide receives the cotton and is termed
the tramper side, while the other, which is over the power, is termed the
press side. Modern press boxes are constructed of heavy structural steel.
607. Size and Type of Bale.-The standard size box makes a bale
54 inches long, 27 inches wide, and approximately 45 inches deep. An
average 500-pound bale of this size will have a density of 12 to 15 pounds
per cubic foot. It will take 30 to 35 bales to fill a 36-foot box car. A
standard compressed bale has a density of 22Yz pounds per cubic foot
and 65 to 75 bales can be loaded into a car.
The bale is usually covered with 3 yards on top and 3 yards on the
bottom of 2-pound jute bagging, making 12 pounds per bale, and is
tied with steel ties, each weighing 172' pounds, making a total of 21 pounds
per bale.
Some gins put out cylindrical shaped bales, known as round bales.
They are approximately 35 or 36 inches long and 20 to 22 inches in diam-
eter, and weigh from 250 to 270 pounds each. The bales are completely
covered with a burlap bagging weighing 2H to 3 pOlmds. The cover is
sewed on and holds the bale without ties. The density of a round bale
FIG. 568.-Automatic hydraulic tramper mounted on top of press box receiving lint cotton
from the condenser.
is about 29 to 32 pounds per cubic foot. ' iYhen cotton is put up in round
bales, it usually carries a premium of 1 cent per pound.
608. Trampers.-Located well above the press box on the tramper
side is the tramper. There are many types, which may be classified
as friction, hydraulic, steam, and mechanical
Figure 567 shows a mechanical tramper while Fig. 568 show:s an
automatic hydraulic tramper.
The function of the tramper is to loosely press the cotton into the
press box as it comes from the condenser. Some trampers work auto-
matically, while others operate only at the will of the attendant. Figure
568 shows the tramper in position to receive the lint as it slides down the
lint chute from the condenser.
609. P r esses.-When the cotton has been loosely tramped into the
press box, on the tramper side, the boxes are revolved to bring the filled
box over the press power.
The pressure required to reduce the cotton to the size and density
of a standard bale is from 40 to 60 tons. To obtain this great pressure
without overloacliqg the power requires special power applications.
There are three methods in use : the screw press, the steam press, and
the hydraulic press.
FIG. 569.- Down-packing, one-story, all-steel hydraulic cotten preStl.
Most of the presses are placed beneath the pres!:> box and press the
cotton upward from the bottom (Fig. 567); however, Fig. 569 shows a
hydrauli c ram, mounted on top of the press box, which presses downward.
CLEANERS AND EXTRACTORS

The practice of gathering, pulling, snapping, sledding, and stripping
cotton has made it necessary that the gin be equipped with special
apparatus for cleaning and extracting the dirt, leaves, burs, and even
parts of the stalk from the seed cotton. In sections where cotton is
picked by hand, tras~. cleaners
:
remove the loose foreign material, such
FIG. 570.-Air-line cleaners. (U . S. D ept . Aar. Farmers' Bull . 1748.)
FIG. 571.-Cross-section of master-type hull extractor an d cleaner.

THE CO'/] TON GIN AND EQUIPMENT 373
as dust, sand, and fine leaf trash . This type of cleaning may be done
with air-line cleaners or out-bf -tlle-air clean ers. Where cotton is snapped,
pulled, or mechanically stripped ·Pre~"sed.stee,(COf,sfrl'cf,im
and contains burs, leaves, stems,
and much coarse ·foreign matter,
extractors and extraotor cleaners
must be used to process the cot-
ton. Cleaners 'th at clean the en-
tire volume of seed cotton passing
through the syst~m are called
maste'r cleaners, and those that
clean only the potton for one gin FIG. 572.-Section of extractor-clea ner saw
stand are called /unit cleaners. 1 drum.
610. Air-lin~ Cleaners.- H and-picked or extracted cotton can be
cleaned with either air-line or out-of-the-air cleaners. Air-line cleaners
ROLLER
7" Dorn NG B RU~H

H~OD
"
FIG. 573.-CrosB-section of unit-type extractor-cleaner-feeder. Note the carding cloth on

the drum.
are master cleaners so placed in the air line that the suction of air draws
1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 1748, p. 12, 1935.
the cotton through them. In passing through th~ cleaner, however, the
velocity of the cotton is slowed down, permjttillg the beaters to act on
t he cotton and shake out foreign matter, which falls through a screen
and is then discharged or trapped. Figure 570 shows several forms of
air-line cleaners. Air-line cleaners are being replaced by unit cleaners
on the gin stands. .
611. Out-oi-air Cleaners.-Cleaners that act 011 ' t he cotton after it
has been elevated from the wagon and removed from the air but before it
reaches the gin stand are termed out-of-air cleaners. They may be u sed
independently or in connection with extractors. An example of t he latt er
FIG. 574.-Cross-section of unit-type extractor-cleaner-feeder.
installation is shown in Fig. 571. These cleaners use some form of

beater, either a spiked-drum, paddle-wheel, or spider-arm type. The
spiked-drum type is shown in Fig. 571. The number of cleaning or
beating cylinders may vary from 3 to 40, or more.
612. Extractor-c1eaners.- " Extracting differs widely from cleaning
because it holds locks of seed cotton on the t eeth of circular saws (Fig.
572) , cylinders, or belts (Fig. 573) while subj ecting the locks to carding
and beating action for removing foreign matt er."l There are numerous
designs of both the master and unit types of extractors. The recent
trend seems to be toward the unit extractor-cleaner-feeder. These are
units that extract, clean, and feed the seed cotton directly into the gin
front (Figs. 574 and 575).
J U. S . Dept. AgT. Farmers' Bull. 1748, p. 12, 1935.
THE COTTON GIN AND EQ UIPMENT 375
613. Cottonseed Conveyors.-As the cottonseed drop from the

gin saws, they fall into Ti, trough in
which operates a ~piral-auge r con-
veyor. All the seed from a battery
of gin stands are conveyed out and
discharged into a pit, where they are
elevated by a bucket elevator and dis-
charged into an ele ated spiral-auger
conveyor: This conveyor carries the
cottonseed to the wagon bin if the
customer is keeping his seed , or to
the seed house 'if he is selling them to
the gin, Figure 576 Rhows a typical
conveyor system as used in the West.
In the eastern p art of t he Cotton Belt
it is a common plan to handle the seed
by blowing them t hrough pipe;
614. Seed Scales.-Figure 577
shows a modern arrangement of auto-
matic scaJes fo r weighing cottonseed
FIG,1i 75 .-C ross~section of a two-unit
as they a re ginned, Where the ginner type extractor-cleaners, one above the
buys the cottonseed, he can with a set other . This type of machine is needed
for very trashy cotton.
of scales keep an accurate record of the
Side view End view

F IG. 576.-Cottonseed conveyor eystem .
seed he purchases. Many ginners still estimate the quantity of seed on a
percentage basis.
615. Charge for Ginning.-The charge for ginning is usuaJl'y based on

the hundredweight of seed cotton. In Texas the charge ranges from 30
to 40 cents for picked cotton and 40 to 50 cents for snapped, pulled, and
sledded cotton. The charge for bagging and ties is in addition to the
charge per hundredweight of seed cotton. This charge ranges from $1.50
to $2 per bale.
l"IG. 577.- Automati c cottonseed weighing and recording scales with Scre w elevators and
conveyor.
SEED COTTON DRIERS

Cotton harvested early in the season or early in the morning before ·
the dew has dried may be too damp to gin without damaging the fiber.
Under such conditions artificial drying will greatly improve the quality
of ginning. Bennett l states that drying cotton artificially involves the
following features; (1) The damp seed cotton is treated with a continuous
current of hot air, at the rate of from 40 to 100 cubic feet of hot air for
eat'h pound; (2) the cotton is exposed to the drying process for different
periods, usually from 15 seconds to 3 minutes, depending on the design
of the drying apparatus; (3) the temperature of the drying air should
preferably be between 150 and 160°F. for cotton handled during the
early part of the ginning season although temperatures as high as 2000
have been used satisfactorily with late season cotton.
1 U. S . Dept. Agr., Misc. Pub. 239. p. 2, 1936.
PART X
FR,D PREPARATION MACHINERY
CHAPTER XXX
FEED GRINDERS
In the feeding of livestock, it has been found that more animal nutri-
tion and food constituents can be assimilated and put into flesh on an
animal if the feed is ground, rather than left whole. Every farmer who
has any livestock to feed, therefore, would find it advantageous to secure
a small feed grinder to grind the feed before it is fed to the stock. Small
feed grinders that can be operated by gasoline engines or small elect ric
motors are preferable. These grinders can be divided into three types,
dependi~g upon the method of grinding; namely, the burr, hammer , and
combination burr and hammer. .
BURR GRINDERS
Most of the burr feed grinders (Fig. 578) are equipped with fiat,
roughened, chilled-iron plates which are often called burrs; hence, the
FIG. 578.-Typical burr-type feed FIG. 579. -Typical plates used in

grinder. burr mills.
name burr grinders. Burr feed-grinder mills are not gener.ally adaptable
to grinding roughages of high fiber content.
616. Types of Plates.-Figure 579 shows several plates havipg ,!1iffer-
ent grinding surfaces. Some of these are for coarse grinding, whil~ others
are for medium and fine grinding.
377
378 PAltM MACH.INERY AND EQUIPMEN1'
Some rnills use plates having one grinding surface, as shown in

Fig. 579, while others use a double face or duplex plate, as shown in
Fig. 580.
A F G A F G
FIG. 580.-Duplex grinding plates.
Burr grinders are usually rated in sizes according to the 'diameter of

the grinding plates, which are 6, 8, 10, and 12 inches. In operation one
burr which revolves, is fastened to the drive shaft; .the other burr is held
rigid in and does not revolve.
A
FIG. 581.-Adjust for fineness by hand screw and by closing feed gate: A, normal adjust-
ment of mill when not in use ; B , adjustment of mill when starting to grind.
617. Fineness of Grinding.-There are several factors that will

influence the fineness of grinding in the burr grinders. They are the rate
of feeding, type of plate, speed of plates, type of material being ground,
FEED GRINDERS 379
condition of plates, and tension between plates. Figure 581 shows a

method of regulating the rate of feeding and also an arrangement for
adjusting the teP..Jion between the prates.
The feed is ' feci into the center of the plate and is ground fine as it
passes between the plates from the center to the outside edge, as shown
in Fig. 582. .(
,//
~
/ /' ==;=-==
-'
. ( Spring of Shaff
Closes8urraf
\ Boffom and ___ _.. _'3?l~~,...,
\.Leaves !pP Open
... _--/
FIG. 582. -Illustrating how broken ma terial is fed to the burrs.
61S. Breaking and Cutting Rolls.-Before the feed, which is being

ground, reaches the grinding plates, it is broken or cut into small pieces.
Figure 583 shows a grinding mechanism suitable for breaking up and
grinding -ear corn from which the husk has been removed. The breaker
roll breaks the ears and crushes the cobs against the concaves, and feeds
the mixture into the grinding plates.
FIG. 583.-Grinding mechanism of type-B feed grinder: A, agitator driving worm;

B, agitator driying gear; C, agitator; D, cob breakers; E, concaye ; F, cob-cutting knife; G,
regulating slides; H, grinding plates; I , release lever; J, p late-adjusting crank.
The grinding mechanism shown in Fig. 584 is designed to grind corn

in the husk and is provided with spiral knife rolls which cut against the
cutter bar in the center, cutting the cobs and husks into small pieces.
This mill will also grind shelled corn, small grains, and grain sorghums
without additional equipment.
619. Safety Devices.-Often when grinding feed, foreign material is
present in the form of sticks, bolts, nuts, and stones, which would likely
injure some part of the mill. An automatic safety release should be

provided to permit the burrs to separate. The concaves are usually
provided with wood break pins. Some machines have a driving gear
FIG. 584.-Grinding mechanism of type-D feed grinder: D, cob-cutting knives; G, feed-

regulating slides; I, plate-release lever; J , plate-adjusting crank.
held by a wood break pin. The compression spring holding the plates
together will give and allow the ohstruction to pass through if it is rather
small.
620. Capacity and Power.-The capac-
ity of burr grinders depends directly upon
the diameter of the plates, the kin4 of
material being ground, the fineness of
grinding, and the speed. Bruhn,l states
that to obtain high grinding efficiency in
the small burr-type mills, the speed must
be high and the rate of feeding must be
regulated to eliminate crowding of the
burrs. To do this, the mill should be
equipped with a feeding device. The
average capacity in bushels per hour is
about 2 to 3 bushels for each horsepower
required.
621. Bagging Attachment.-Figure 585
shows a burr mill equipped with a short
elevator and spout for bagging the ground
feed. Elevators suitable for elevating the
feed into a wagon box are also available.
FIG. 585.-Sacking elevator attach-
ed to grinder. HAMMER MILLS
The hammer mill difIers from the burr mill in that instead of flat disk
plates, for grinding, there are hammer-like projections mounted on a
1 Agr. Eng., Vol. 17, No.3, p. 101, 1936.
FEED GRINDERS 381
cylinder (Fig. 586). ;1'his cylinder of hammers revolves at a high rate of

speed and grinds the material by beating it to pieces. It is claimed that
this type of mill will grind almost any material that is used for feed.
Kruegerl gives the ' following ad-
vantages of a hammer mill:
1. It is not dulled by running empty.
2. Foreign material in the feed will not
ordinarqy injure it.
3. There is greater range In fineness.
4. Replacements are fewer.
5. Wear does not impair its efficiency.
,
622. Hammers.-The hammers are
fastened on a rotor or cylinder and may
be rigid or swinging. The swinging
hammer is hinged, but the rigid is
fastened to a rotor shaft or cylinder
by jam nuts. The shape of the ham-
FIG. 586.-Hammer mill equipped
mer cutting edge varies according to with cutter knives and reversible swing-
the ideas of the designers. The ham- of ing hammers. The mill is fed at the side
the housing.
mer should, however, be made of high-
grade hardened steel to prevent excessive wear.
623. Screens.-Most machines have the lower half of the cylinder
enclosed by a screen usually of one piece. It may consist of holes
FIG. 587.-Hammer mill equipped with swinging hammers, cutters, and knives. This mill
is fed through the side of the rotor housing instead of directly into the hammers.
punched through sheet steel, as shown in Fig. 588. Various size holes are
used, depending upon the fineness of grinding. The size of the holes
ranges from %4 inch to 2 inches. The smaller holes are used when grind-
ing grains, while the larger sizes are used when grinding roughage , such aR
sorghum stalks, cornstalks, or hay. ~
1 Agr. Eng., Vol. 8, No.7, p. 167, 1927.
TABLE XXI.-CAPACITY AND HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS OF HAMMER MILL IN

GRINDING DIFFERENT FEEDS AT DIFFERENT SPEEDS'
Specifications:
T y pe--double reduction with knives and flexible hammers.
Width of grinding cylinder- 8% inches.
Width of screen-8X inches.
Diameter of grinding cylinder-31_72 inches.
Recommended speed-1 ,800 r.p.m.
Special equipment-fan-type bagger with dust collector.
Weight-970 pounds.
Power Hp.
Size of Mill speed, Lb. ground Kw .-hr. Fineness
input. to required
screen, in. r.p .m. per hour per 100 lb. modulus
motor, kw. by mill
No load
1590 (Without fan) 2 .24 2.00

1590 (With fan) 2.78 2.60
1930 (Witho ut fan ) 2.90 2.80
1930 (With fan) 3.80 3 . 90
2425 (Without fan) 4.94 5.25
2425 (With fan) 6.85 7.60
Snapped corn
1514 1324 0 . 70 9.25 10 . 10 3.75
Bundled Hegari
X 1540 1012 0 .97 9.82 10 .60 3.10

72 1545 1398 0 .61 8 .55 9.42 3.28
1 1568 1670 \ 0.46 7.54 8.32 3.92
Alfalfa hay
X 1548 1401 0 .55 7.73 8.56 2 . 41

Yz 1581 1363 0.46 6 .09 6.70
1 1578 2272 0.28 6.29 6.95 2.95
NOTE: Century motor used in all tests.

I Report of Farm Electrification Short Course at the Agricult ural and M echanical College of
T exas, 1931.
624. Grinding Process.- The material to be ground is fed directly

into the compartment where the hammers are revolving. The hammers
strike the material with such violent force that it is practically exploded.
The material is retained on the screen until it is beaten fine enough to
pass through the perforations.
625. Capacity and P ower.-The capacity of a hammer mill also
depends to a large extent upon the rate of feeding, speed of hammers,
power available, kind of material being used, fineness of grinding, size
of opening in screen, and size of mill. .
FEED GRINDERS 383
Table XXI sh~\r the results of tests made by Jones oftheAgricultural

and Mechanical ' /.'IIege of T exas on a hammer mill similar to the one
, '. . ' . 0 .
•
Fro. 588.-Hammer mill with rigid hammers and elevator fan.
shown in Fig. 587. Vutz i states that the capacity for a given fineness
and horsepower is limited by the size of the screen.
626. Bagging Attachment.-Figure 590 shows an elevator and bagging
attachment mounted on the mill. The
ground feed is removed from under the
mill by suction and blown into the large
hopper of the sacking attachment. This
eliminates most of the dust resulting from
the grinding of the feed.
FIG. 589.-Hammer mill equ ipped FIG. 590.-Hammer min

with swinging h a mmers and elevator equjpped wjth two-way bagging
fan. attachment elevated so feed can
be run jnto a wagon or truck.
THE COMBINATION GRINDER AND ROUGHAGE CUTTER

The combination feed-grinder mills have some form of cutter head and
may have either burrs or hammers for the final grinding of the feed . This
1. Agr. Eng. , Vol. 12, No.7, p. 271, 1931.
FIG. 591.-Self-feeder con veyor a pron and hopper for handling roughages. An aut om a tic
governor prevents overloading of the mill.
..
FIG. 592.- Combination roughage cu t ter a nd burr mill equipped with sacking elevator.
FIG. 593.-Spiral-knife cutting cylinder.

. , .... - .,. FEED GRINDERS . 385
TAllLE XXII._CltPACITY7~oD HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS OF COMBINATION BURR

. MILL ANp ROUGHAGE CUTTER
Specifications:
Type-combination knife and burr.
Width of cutting cylinder-9 inches.
- ,.
Diameter of bUl'rs-8 and 10 inches.
Recommended speed-600 to 850 r.p.m.
Special equipment-selHeed device and cbain-conveyor-type sacking elevator.
Weight-1045 pounds .
•
Size and I
Mill speed, Lb. ground Kw.-hr. ~ Power Hp.
Fineness
kind of input to required
r.p.m. \ per hr. per 100 lb. modulus
burrs motor, kw. by mill
No load
. _.
435 i ·i .... .:...
1.40 1.05 i•
511 1.40 1.05 ~.
.. '
563 1.60 1.30
Snapped corn
8" coarse 410 1296 0.53 6.82 7.00" 3.98

8" coarse 419 1174 0.51 5.93 6.22" 3 88
8" coarse 520 1178 0.62 7.33 7.45' 3.56 "'
8" coarse 675 1250 0.69 8.62 9.45t 3.55
8" coarse 790 1120 0.72 8.10 8.95t 3.34
., Bundled Hegari
8" coarse 490 893 0.65 5.81 6.15" 3.79

8" coarse 530 1083 0.46 4.96 5.33* 3.77
8" coarse 675 1100 0.51 5.58 6.10t 3.15
10" coarse 405 1023 0.65 6.60 6.82* 3.87
10" coarse 484 1435 0.50 7.05 7.78t
Cutting only 530 1868 0.23 4.10 4.43 4.45
Alfalfa hay
8" coarse
8" coarse
I 530
685
878
867
0.32
0.55
2.77
4.70
2.83
5.02
* General Electric motor used.

t Century motor used.
type of mill is suitable for grinding concentrates and roughages separately

or in combination. The hammer mills shown in Figs. 586 and 587 are
capable of cutting and grinding roughage feeds. Figure 592 shows a
combination burr mill and roughage
cutter.
The process of grinding hay or stalk
roughage starts with the chopping up of
the material by the cutter, as shown in
Figs. 593 and 594. The chopped material
FIG. 594.-Staggered-knife cutting FIG. 595.-Separating and ele-

cylinder. vating system on combination feed
grinder.
can be either ruq out as chopped feed or it can be run through

the burrs and ground into meal. If desired, the concentrates such
as corn, sorghum, wheat, or oats can be ground between the burrs
and mixed with the chopped roughage as a complete feed. Table XXII
shows the results of tests made by Jones of the Agricultural and Mechan-
ical College of Texas on a small combination burr mill and roughage
cutter.
CHAPTER XXXI
SILAGE CUTTERS
Thee use of the silo in which to preserve green feeds has created a
demand for it machine to cut the material into short lengths and deliver
it inside the silo. The silage cutter is a very efficient machine to perform
this task. It is also called an ensilage cutter or silo filler.
FIG. 596.-CYlinder-type silage cutter.
FIG. 597.-Flywheel-type silage cutter with corn chute.
627. Types.-Silage cutters may be divided into two general types,

depending on the form of the cutting head. They are the cylinder type
(Fig. 596) and the flywheel type (Fig. 597) . A third type cuts the silage
in the field and elevates it into a wagon, where it is taken to the silo and
reelevated into the silo.
387
-~r.. ,

;
,-'I
Both the cylinder and flywheel types are mounted on trucks so they
can be easily moved from place to place. Means are provided for
blowing the cut material into the inside of the silo, through a vertical
blower pipe. Three distinct operations are performed by the silage
cutter: feeding, cutting. and elevating. .
628. Size and Capacity of Cutters.-Duffee 1 has collected consider-
able data to show that the capacity of a silage cutter is directly propor-
tional to the total area of the throat opening, other things remaining the
same. Some companies are now rating the size of their cutters upon the
basis of the total number of square inches in the throat opening.
The formula derived by Duffee to determine the capacity of 'a silage
cutter is as follows:
Capacity in tons per hour equals:
, ..
W X H X L X N X R X K,
where W = width of throat, in inches measured at narrowest point.
H = height of throat, in inches.
L = length of cut expressed decimally. ..'
N = number of knives. . ...
R = speed, in revolutions per minute.
'J
/' ....r ''': '.
, '''1 K = a constant of 0.00036.
I
J
FEEDING APPARATUS
The proper way to feed a silage cutter is to keep an even stream of
material going through the machine at all times. It is always best to
feed the stalks into the machine, butts first.
The feeding mechanism of a silage feeder consists primarily of the
apron and the feed rolls. Some of the smaller cutters do not have a
carrier apron but are hand fed.
629. Feed Apron.-There are several types of traveling aprons. On
some machines grip hooks are used to make the feeding more positive.
Figure 598 shows a typical feed apron. Both metal and wooden slats
are used. Metal is considered the best. A tension device is provided
to regUlate the tightness of the apron.
630. Com Chute.-Where the bundles are being thrown on the feed
apron slirectly from the wagon, the corn chute or extension table (Fig. 597)
is of great help. The bundles can be lapped sufficiently to materially aid
in feeding. " '-'
631. Feed Rolls.-The feed rolls receive the green material from the
apron and present it to the cutting mechanism. The rolls have different
shaped surfaces, such as corrugated, fluted, and toothed. The number
of rolls in a machine vary from two to four. The top rolls should be
Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans., Vol. XIX, p. 102. 1925.
'\.,.
1 •
- .. - ..
-, .
,'..... , "
SILAGE CUTTERS 389
...
adjustable ve:r;,tically, yet h!tve tension enough to assure positive feeding
Tension is provided either by weights or by springs.
FIG. 598.-Carrier apron and feed rolls: 1,2, lock for cover; 3 , fan cover; 4, spring yoke;
5, clutch and control lever; 6, paddle feed roll; 7, upper feed roll; 8, lower feed roll ; 9, table
side; 10, carrier slat; 11, adjustment for carrier tension.
Duffee found in his investigations on silage cutters that better and

more positive feeding was obtained by having the conveyor apron and
the surface of the feed rolls travel at the same rate of speed.
Mesh these
lnte~e!~~c~~~
FIG. 599.-Method of changing length of cut.
632 .. Length of Cut.-It is often desirable to change the length of cut

on silage cutters. The most common lengths for silage ranges from % to
72 inch. The length of cut is regulated by the speed of the feed apron
and the feed rolls. Feeding faster will give longer cuts while slower
feeding will give shorter cuts.
The speed is changed by changing the gear or sprocket wheel that
drives the feeding mechanism (Fig. 599).
FIG. 600.-Feed control lever: 1, reverse position; 2, neutral position; 3, forward position.
633. Feeder Control.- Figure 600 shows a control lever for the
feeding mechanism in forward, neutral, and reverse positions. Position
3 is forw ard or cutting position. Figure 598 shows a lever control that is
convenient to both side's of the machine. This provides a safety device
since falling against the lever would throw the machine into neutral or
reverse position.
CUTTING MECHANISM
The cutting mechanism consists of the cutting head, of which the

most important parts are the knives and the shear plate or cutter bar .
There are two types of cutter heads : cylinder and flywh eel.
634. Cylinder-type Cutting Head.- Figure 601 shows the cutting
head of the cylinder type. The number of knives vary from one to four.
They are curved spirally to form a cylinder. The construction is similar
•
to the cutting head of a lawn mower, except that it is larger and heavier.
The cutting head of the cylinder type is entirely separate from the
blower. It may be mounted on separate shafts or it may be ' on the
same shaft, as shown in Fig. 602. When the material has been cut by
the knives, it is delivered to the blower by gravity or by an auger con-
tiILAGE CUTTERS 391
.veyor. The ~peed of the cutting head is from 500 to 600 rev_oluti~ns per
minute.
The blowe, when a separate unit, runs at a speed of 500 to 1,000
revolutions" per minute.
FIG. 6Dl.- Overhead view of cylinder cu tter head, shear plate, a nd lower feed roll.
635. Flywheel Type.- The cutting head of the flywheel type consists
of a steel or cast-iron flywh eel on which are fasten~d the knives and fan
blades (Fig. 603). If the wheel is made of cast iron, it should be rein-
FlO. 602,-CYlinder cu tting head, fan, and pulley mqunted on the same shaft.
forced by a steel band or tire around the rim. When a cast-iron wheel is
operated at a high speed, there is danger of its exploding or being pulled
to pieces, owing to centrifugal force . Under no circumstances should the
392 'P ARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
blower fan housing be opened while the machine is running. Wait until
it stops and thus avoid a serious accident. Steel wheels are much safer
than cast-iron wheels.
The shape of the knife used may be either straight, concave, or convex.
The straight knife is most often used.
FIG. 603.-Flywheel cutter hea d showing FIG. 604.-Shear plate A, and feed roll
knives and fan blades. B, for flywheel silage cutter.
The speed of the cutting head in the flywheel-type cutter is much

higher than that of the cylinder type. It ranges from 600 to 1,000
revolutions per minute.
636. Shear Plate.-The shear plate is also termed the cutter baT.
This plate, as shown in Fig. 604, forms the other cutting edge for the
knives. Some bars are reversible and may have as many as fOllr cutting
edges.
FIG. 605.-Knife-grinding attachment for sil age cutter.
637. Knife Adjustment.-Both the cylinder and flywheel types are

provided with means whereby the knives can be adjusted to the shear
plate. This is done by setscrews and wedges that act on the knife.
Additional adjustments may be made with setscrews to line up the
SILAGE CUTTERS 393
FIG. 606. -Blower and distributor pipe.
FIG. 607.-Sectional view of silage harvester showing harvesting, feeding, cutting, and
elevating mechanism.
whole cutter head. For the best cutting the knife should work just as
close as possible to the shear plate without striking.
638. Sharpening Knives.-It is very essential that the knives be
kept sharp. As a general rule, they should be sharpened after each
half-day's work. Figure 605 shows a knife-grinding attachment placed
on the machine.
ELEVATING SILAGE
There are two methods of elevating cut silage into the silo : the
carrier elevator and the blower. The majority of cutters use the blower.
FIG. 608.-Field silage cutter drawn and driven by a tractor. The truck catches the cut
silage.
The cylinder type has a blower fan separate from the cutting head
while in the flywheel type the fan blades or wings are mounted on the
wheel between the knives. These
blades should fit the fan housing Oef"lector _ _ _ __
rather closely to obtain efficient
elevation. •
639. Blower and Distributor
Pipe.-The blower pipe should be
set as nearly vertical as possible.
If the pipe has very much of an
pulley
angle, the heavy silage will gravitate
to the lower side and let the blast of
air pass over and above it. Such a
condition would soon cause the pipe FIG. 609.-Blower for elevating silage into
silo.
to chok e. Figure 606 shows a part
of the blower pipe with the deflector hood, hopper, and several sections
of the distributor pipe. The deflector hood deflects the silage over into
/ SILAGE CUTTERS 395
TABLE XXIII.-DATA ON 1925 SIL'o FILLER TESTS CONDUCTED BY THE AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF \VrSCONSIN 6
I
Cutter Fan
Type, Height Size Length Aver- Horse-
speed, speed, Tons, power
flywheel of of of age
No. revolu- revolu- per hours,
or silo, cutter, cu't , hOl'se-
tions per tions per hour per
cylinder feet inches inches power
minute minute ton
1 Flywheel 30 11 0.482 666 . . ... 12.92 18.91 1.461

2 Flywheel 30 11 0 .482 764 .. . . . 12.86 20.60 1.601
3 F lywheel 30 11 0.482 758 . . ... 14.00 22.47 1.605
4 Flywheel 30 11 0.482 937 ..... 14.95 26.66 1.784
5 Flywheel 30 11 0.482 923 ..... 16.97 30.70 1.810
6 Flywheel 30 13 0.586 525 . . . .. 16.76 15.27 0 .910
7 Flywheel 30 13 0.586 654 .. .. . 20.34 24.20 1.190
8 Flywheel 30 13 0.586 779 ... .. 23.22 33 .20 1.430
9 Flywheel 53 13 0.413 571 .. . .. 11.72 13.25 1 . 130
10 Flywheel 53 13 0.413 766 . .... 16.51 18.23 1.104
11 Flywheel' 37 14 0.481 400 ... .. 19.62 15.15 0.772
12 Flywheel 1 37 14 0.481 505 ... . . 17.52 16.91 0.965
13 FlywheeP 37 14 0.481 512 .... . 18.88 19.53 1.033
14 FlywheeP 37 14 0.481 496 ..... 21.78 20 . 30 0 .932
15 Flywheel' 53 14 0.481 443 ..... 14.04 12.95 0.922
16 FlywheeP 53 14 0.481 442 ... . . 17.75 16.95 0.954
17 Flywheel' 37 14 0.481 392 . ... . 18.40 14.50 0.788
18 FlywheeP 37 14 0 .481 400 ... . . 24.83 20 . 95 0.844
19 Flywheel 3 37 14 0 .481 451 . . ... 16.28 14.14 0.868
20 FlywheeP 37 14 0.481 496 ..... 23.97 22.82 0.952
21 Cylinder4 53 14 0.500 1, 166 1 , 166 14.64 19 .29 1.317
22 Cylinder4 53 14 0 . 500 1 , 142 1 , 142 15.12 20.70 1.368
23 Cylinder4 53 14 0.500 1,156 1 , 156 11.00 14.80 1.345
24 Cylinder 37 75 (sq. in.) 0 .578 447 776 18.80 17 .95 0 . 955
25 Cylinder 37 75 (sq. in.) 0.578 444 770 20.36 20.05 0.985
26 Cylinder 37 75 (sq. in.) 0.578 456 790 15.54 15 . 91 1.024
27 Cylinder 37 75 (sq. in.) 0.578 440 762 24.20 23.96 0.990
28 Flywheel 53 13 0 .458 529 . ... . 16.90 12.89 0.762
29 Flywheel 53 13 0.458 535 ..... 13.42 12.37 0.922
30 Flywheel 53 13 0.458 635 . .. .. 18 .60 20.18 1.084
31 Flywheel 53 13 0.458 637 .. .. . 16.60 17.17 1 .035
32 Cylinder 37 70 (sq. in. ) 0.350 469 547 14.60 13.05 0.894
33 Cylinder 37 70 (sq. in. ) 0 .350 473 552 14 .35 13.51 0.941
34 Cylinder 37 70 (sq. in.) 0.350 564 658 17.18 20.47 1.191
35 Cylinder 37 70 (sq. in.) 0.350 570 664 15 .37 17 .30 1.125
NOTE.-Tbe 53-foot silo for Tests 9 and 10. 15 and 16, 21 to 23, and 28 to 31
would increase tbe power requirement probably 3 per cent.
1 A special Case cutter with four knives and eight fan wings instead of three knives and six fa.n wings
The fan wings used in this test h ..d considerable clearance. Regular knife supports were used.
, Same .. s 1 except that the fan wings were close fitting.
, Specia l Case mil-chine with four knives and eight fan wings. Special cast-iron spider knife support
• Special Case machine with two knives and four fan wings.
• Am. Soc. AgT. Eno. TTans., Vol. XX, p. 101, 1926.
the silo. · As the silo is filled, sections of the distributor pipe can be
removed until the top is reached .
640. Relation of Capacity and Power Requirements.-Table XXIII
shows the results obtained by Duffee in his tests of silage cutters. The
type of machine, height of silo, size of cutter, length of cut, cutter-head
speed, fan speed, tons per hour, average horsepower required, and the
horsepower hours per ton are ali shown.
641. Silage Harvesters.-Two units are necessary to fill a silo when
the silage is prepared in the field: a field unit and a silo unit. The field
unit consists of a power-driven harvester similar to the corn binder and
is composed of divider boards, gathering chains, side knives and sickle,
and packers to feed the harvested corn to the cylinder cutterhead which
cuts the corn into suitable lengths for silage (Fig. 607). The cut silage
is elevated into a wagon or truck that travels along under the elevator
(Fig. 608).
The blower consists of a feedbox, a fan, and the usual blower and
distributor pipe (Fig. 609).
PART XI
FERTILIZING MACHINERY
CHAP'TER XXXII
MANURE SPREADERS
The manure spreader is a machine for carrying barnyard manure
to the field, tearing it up, and spreading it uniformly over the land
FIG. 610.-Manure spreader with parts named.
(Fig. 610). This type of machine should be on every farm that produces
several tons of manure per year. It is a successful machine and is a
paying one because it will save labor by spreading the manure faster
and more uniformly than can be done by hand.
FIG. 611.-Frame and tight bottom with conveyor.
642. The Frame.-Since manure is very heavy and at least a ton is

loaded on the spreader for each trip to the field , it requires a substantial,
397
yet comparatively light, frame. The side rails on all spreaders should
be made of a good grade of channel steel properly reinforced and braced.
Figure 611 shows a typical frame with the conveyor attached.
CONVEYORS OR APRONS
The quantity and the uniformity of spreading depend to a great
extent upon the proper operation of the conveyor or apron. It carries
FIG. 612.-Endless apron or conveyor with slats hinged to allow cleaning.
the manure back to the rear of the machine, sliding it over the bottom,
where it comes in contact with the beaters. There are three types of
conveyors, or aprons: the reverse, the endless, and the tight bottom with
conveyor.
643. Return Apron.-This type of apron is now practically obsolete
on manure spreaders.
644. Endless Apron or Conveyor.- A few
spreaders are still equipped with the ,endless
type of conveyor. Many manufacturers, how-
ever, are discontinuing its use. Figure 612
shows an endless apron which is self-cleaning
because the slats hinge on one side and hang
down, allowing any material that might have
dropped through the top part of the con-
veyor to pass between the slats.
645. Tight Bottom with Conveyor.- This
type of apron, which is now practically
standard on spreaders, consists of a stationary
FIG. 613.- Showing the solid wooden bottom, over which slides an end-
feed lever in high speed.
Pushing lever ahead to last less web chain of steel slats. Figure 611
notch throws machine out of shows the conveyor chain in position on the
gear.
tight bottom of the box. The manure is
thrown into the box on the conveyor which is stretched over the bottom of
the box. Then, as the conveyor moves to the rear, it slides and carries
the manure with it.
All types of aprons operate very slowly. The minimum travel per
revolution of the main drive wheel is about 1 inch, while the maxim,um
is aroUJld 3 inches.
MANURE SPREADERS 399
The rate of travel is controlled by a lever (Fig. 613) plac€d con-

venient for the driver. From 5 to 20 loads .can be spread per acre.
The tension of the conveyor chain can be adjusted by a etscrew
arrangement on each ~nd of the front conveyor shaft.
646. Con~yor D'riye.-A ratchet and pawl arrangement is the stand-
ard device for driving t.h e conveyor chain or apron of a manure spreader.
Figure 6J_4 shows three typical conveyor drives. As the feed cam
raises the 'rocker arm, it causes the feed pawl to engage the teeth on the
ratchet wheel and turn it. The number of teeth engaged by the feed pawl
FlO. 614.-Three conventional types of conveyor drives.
at a stroke is regulated by a stop pawl. This in turn regulates the speed

of the conveyor and the volume of manure cli. tributed. The adjustment
of the feed pawl is controlled by a lever placed convenient for the driver.
The lever is connected to the feed pawl by a long rod and can be shifted
to any position without stopping the machine.
647. Beater.-The beater is placed just to the rear of the conveyor to
beat, tear up, and spread the manure from the rear of the spreader (Fig.
615). It must be made substantial because it must spread all kinds of
manure in various states of physical condition. There should be good
substantial bearings of self-aligning or roller type. The beater may have
either wood or steel bars through which the teeth are fastened . Some
teeth are riveted in, while others are held in place by nuts.
The beater revolves in the opposite direction to that of the main
wheels. It is, therefore, necessary to have some arrangement to give it
this reverse motion. These methods will be discussed under beater
drives. The beater should revolve at a comparatively high rate of speed

and the ratio is usually about 6 or 7 to 1, that is, a beater revolves about
seven times to the main wheel once.
If the beater is made the same diameter from one end to the other,
more manure is likely to be spread behind the center of the spreader than
to the sides, because, in loading, the load is piled higher in the middle of
the box than at the sides. It is also packed more compactly in the center.
To offset this some companies have
made beaters which are div'ided at the
center and made in two sections.
The center part of the beater is larger
than that of the outside. Others
ha vc a beater made in a circular
Rhape. This type of construction
prevents more manure being spread
directly behind the center of the
spreader than to the sides. #
648. Auxiliary Beater.-On many

manure spreaders there is an auxiliary
beater placed above and a little to
the front of the main beater (Fig.
615). This auxiliary beater aids the
main beater in tearing up and pul-
verizing ":7' the large flakes · that are
encountered. It receives its power
directly from the main beater shaft
by means of a chain passed .around a
sprocket of the main beater shaft
FIG. 615.-0verhe::l.d v:iew of manure and the auxiliary beater shaft. It
spreader showing tight-bottom conveyor,
main and a uxi liary beaters, a nd wide revolves in the same direction, there-
spread . fore, as t hat of the main beater.
649. Widespread Device.- To prevent the manure being spread
thicker behind the center of the machine, a widespread device is used
(Fig. 615). It will also spread the manure wider than the machine and
makes it unnecessary to lap the loads. The device consists of steel
blades or a curved spiral. One-half of the spiral is set to throw to the
left , while the other half is set to throw to the right.
The manure is thrown backward by the beaters against the revolving
spirals, which throw it backward and outward and spread it uniformly
over a width of about 7 or 8 feet. The widespread beater is driven by a
chain from the main or auxiliary beater shafts.
660. Beater Drive. -The chain is the common ~ethod ot driving
the beaters 'on manure spreaders. A large drive sprocket is mounted
rigidly on the main axle. The drive chain passes around a sprocket on
the end of the auxili~ry beater shaft or main beater shaft, and around a
movable idler sproc~et (Fig. 616). The chain does not pass around the
drive sprocket. As the movable idler sprocket is lowered, the bottom
part of the d~ive chain is lowered onto the drive sprocket. This will
cause the beaters and widespread device to turn in the opposite directioD
to that of'4;he main drive sprocket. The machine is thrown out of gear
by raising the drive chain from the drive sprocket. This is done by a.
t
Bal'. hook ends flnt ill 41·
,..etlon or t.r&. .1.
d~he
Slott II,"," to o ut.a1dc
J EXCEPT where it
OD tbe l .r .. ,
{I..prOCk-flt.
rwu
FIG. 616.-Beater drive. The main beater on t,his spr eader is on t he rear axle.
control lever placed on the front of the box and connected to the idler
sprocket by a rod. -
651. Box.-An interior view of the box is shown in Fig. 615. The box
of the standard spreader has a tight wood bottom with side boards to
hold the manure. The box should be about 1 to 1.Yz inches wider at the
rear than at the front so the manure will not wedge between the side
boards as the conveyor carries it to the rear of the machine.
The front end gate is inclined forward so the manure can be heaped up.
As the load moves backward, the manure will fall forward and level out.
A rear end -gate; as shown in Fig. 617, prevents the manure packing
against the beaters while on the way to the field. It makes the beaters
easier to start. Soft wet manure will not leak out at the rear with an
end gate.
B
FIG. 617.-Rear end gate for manure spreader: A, end gate raised, in spreading position :
B, end gate lowered, in loading position.
FIG. 618.- Front tru ck wheels remain pa.rallel when turning.
Fi.G. 619.-8traw-spreader a.ttachment.

652. FronJ Trucks.-The old-type fifth-wheel farm-wagon type of
front truck is being rapidly discarded for the auto-steering arrangement.
The front wheels track with the rear
wheels. The front and rear wheels are
the same distance apart. The front
wheels !1re mounted upon short, pivotal,
axle ends which are attached to the
frame under the corner of the box by
vertical llpindles. Arms, extending for-
ward from the spindles, are connected
to the tongue socket by steering rods
in such a manner t hat the wheels turn
and remain parallel when the tongue
is moved to either side (Fig. 618). The
FIG. 620.-Brake attachment for manure
movement is similar to that of the spreaders.
front wheels of an automobile.
This type of truck eliminates whipping of the tongue , when on rough
ground with a heavy ioad .
653. Size and Capacity.-The size of a manure spreader is usually
given in bushels. The average spreader will hold from 60 to 70 bushels.
A dry measure bushel is equal to 2,150.4 cubic inches .
•
utl_ • • ' th '-.-.

fll-. . . . . .. .
FIG. 621. - Lime-spreading attachment and end gate with scale to indicate tons when load is
level , a lso tons per acre for lever notches.
654. Straw-spreader Attachment.-A straw-spreading attachment,

similar to the one shown in Fig. 619, can be secured for most manure
preaders. Such an attachment m!l-kes it possible to take the straw from
the straw stacks and spread it in a thin layer over the land so that it can
be plowed in to add fe rtility and humus to the soil.
655. Brake Attachment.- In hilly sections a brake attachment is
essential. Figure 620 shows such an attachment fastened to one of the
rear wheels of a spreader. ,
656. Lime-spreader Attachment.-Figure 621 shows an attachment
for manur·:; spreaders to spread lime. A special end gate with a scale
to indicate the tonnage and rates of application is placed in front of
the beaters until the field is reached and the load is ready to be spread ,
at which time it is removed (Fig. 621). The lime falls on two revolving
disks, which spread it.
FIG. 622.-A two-wheel tractor-drawn and tractor-driven manure spreader equipped with
ru bber tires.
667. Loading the Spreader.-It is considered the better plan to start

loading at the front end and finish at the rear end. The manure is torn
up and broken to pieces easier when the load is put on in this manner.
658. Mechanical Loaders.-When
spreading manure with a manure
spreader, more time is consumed in
loading than any other operation.
It is also the hardest work. Me-
charucalloaders are available whereby
the manure is loaded on the spreader
without having to do it with a
pitchfork.
669. Tractor Hitch.-Most com-
panies can furnish a hitch which will
allow the spreader to be drawn by a
tractor. Hitches can be built so that
FIG. 623.-Front end of tractor ma- two machines ' can be handled by one
nllle spreader showing tractor hitch, slip- tractor.
clutch drive, and main drive chain.
. 660. Tractor Spreaders.-Two -
wheel spreaders are available, especially designed to be , drawn by a
tractor, and equipped with a power take-off drive to drive the conveyor
and beaters (FiJZ:s. 622 and 623).
CHAPTER XXXIII
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTORS

Tlniuse of commercial f rtilizers is becoming more extensive each year.
Such fertilizers are of many kinds and vary from highly concentrated
chemicals, that must be used in small quantities, to a rather low-grade
mixture which is used in large amounts.
The fact that a fertilizer distributor is required to distribute varying
amounts of fertilizer, in almost any physical and mechanical condition,
and place it in the soil so tha~ it will not injure the seed, makes it difficult
to design a machine that will meet such a wide range of requirements.
661. Location of 1<'ertilizer in Relation to the Seed.-A committee of
the American Society of Agronomy on Fertilizer Application recom-
mended that all fertilizer attachments on planting and seeding machinery
be so designed as absolutely to prevent contact between seed and fertilizer.
A joint committee on fertilizer application, representing the American
Society of Agronomy, the American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
The National Fertilizer Association, and the National Association of
Farm Equipment Manufacturers adopted the following statement on
fertilizer application: .
Cont~t of fertilizer with the seed, except when fertilizer is used in very small
amounts, tends to depress and delay germination and may even prevent it. The
extent of this delay or depression varies with the materials used in the fertilizer,
with the moisture content of the soil, with the crop grown, and with the quantity
of fertilizer applied.
Accepting the above statements, we find that the fertilizer may be
applied as hill applications with hill dropping of the seed, or drilled when
the seed are drilled. Then, for the small grains, it may be either drilled or
broadcasted.
When the fertilizer is placed in the soil, it may be located in relation
to the seed as follows:
1. Hill:
a. Above seed.
b. Below seed.
c. In front of seed.
d. In direct contact with seed.
2. Drill:
a. Above seed.
b. Below seed.
405
c. To the side and below the level of the seed.

d In direct contact with the seed.
e. Mixed in row with seed.
3. Broadcasted before plan ting.
4. Side dressing:
a. On one side of plan ts.
b. On bot h sides of plants.
Even though it is not desirable, many fertilizer attachments for plant·

ing and seeding machinery place the fertilizer in direct contact with the
seed.
662. Types of Distributors.-There are severa.l di.fferent types of
fertilizer distributors. The design of t he machine is greatly influenced
by tbe time at which the fertilizer is to be placed in t he soil. It is the
practice in certain sections to distribute part of the fertilizer b efore
planting and part aftcr the crop is well advanced, as a side dressing.
Many small-grain growers like to drill or broadcast the fertilizer before
planting. The bulk of the fertilizer for crop production, however, is
handled by fertilizer distributing attachments on planting and seeding
machinery. Applications of lime are usually broadcasted.
The types of fertilizer distributors are: t he walking vibrator, the
attachments for onc- and two-row planters, grain drills, cultivators, and
t he broadcast distributors.
Fooffor
Furrow Opener....•.if ' /'
Ferf//izer Spouf···'
FIG. 624.-Side view 01 vibrator-type iertilizer feed .
663. Vibrator or Knocker Distributor.- Figure 624 shows ~ fertilizer

distributor used to place the fertilizer in the soil before planting. It
consists of a wood hopper, trapezoidally shaped, mop.nted .on a beam,
baving a steel. wtleel at the rear and a foot for a furrow opener directly
under the hopper . The hopper is hinged on the lower front edge. T he
rear side of the hopper is supported by an arm extending to the r'e ar and
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTORS 407
resting on a series of lugs on the side of the drive wheel. At the bottom
of "the hopper there is a t ray, with an adjustable control.
The fertilizer is shaken from the hopper by vibrations caused by the
knocker coming In contact wi t h the lugs on the side of the revolving
wheel.
The fertilizer may fall into a \single spout and, thence, into the row or
into a double spout which will deposit it as a side dressing beside two rows
of plants.
FERTILIZER ATTACHMENTS FOR ROW PLANTERS
Fertilizer distributing attachments can be secured for all t ypes of row
planters.
664.. For One-row Walking Planters.- One-row walking planters with
fertilizer attachments are sho wn in Figs. 228, 625, and 626. The fertilizer
F IG. 625.- F ertilizer attachment for walking planter . The fertilizer is placed to the side of
t he seed.
hopper is placed to the fro nt of the seed hopper: The feeding device is
driven by sprocket and chain from the drive wheel or by the cranks
attached to the pitmans that drive the planting mechanism.
The fertilizer (Fig. &25) is deposited in front of the furrow opener
and partially mixed in the row above the seed.
In Fig. 626 the fertilizer is placed in a furrow and mixed in the row,
below the seed. I
665. For One- and Two-row Riding Drill Planters.-One- and
two-row cotton and corn planters can be equipped with fertilizer attaeh-
ments, as shown in Figs. 242, 244, and 627. The fertilizer hopper is
FIG. 626.-Tipover view of walking planter showing fertilizer spout, seed spout, ferti-
lizer covering blades, runner caJlting, and press wheel with automatic scraper. The ferti-
lizer is placed below the seed.
Fla. 627.-Fertilizer attachment for one-row riding cotton and corn planter. The fertilizer
is mixed in the row.
mounted to the front of and slightly higher than the seed hopper. The
fertilizer distributing mechanism is driven from the main axle by sprocket
and chain.
The fertilizer is deposited by the feeding mechanism on the ground
behind the sweep. or middlebreaker and just ahead of the seed furrow
opener (Fig. 627). The furrow-opener shovel plows through the fertilizer,
mixing it with the soil in the row.
666. For Check-row Planters.-Where corn is checked it is desirable
to place the fertilizer near the hill. The attachment shown in Fig. 628 is
FIG. 628. -Automatic hill-dropping fertilizer attachment. The fertili zer is placed above
the hill.
'designed to automatically drop a quantity of fertilizer at each hill of corn.

Truog 1 recommends that a fertilizer attachment for a corn planter
should be adjustable, so that quantities ranging from 75 to 200 pounds per
acre may be applied in the hill. This fertilizer should be applied in a
band about 4 inches wide and 8 inches long from Yz to % inch directly
above the seed . The fertilizer should not be dropped in a mass, but
should be spread over the whole area.
Figure 629 shows how the valve in the lower end of the fertilizer tube
is opened in unison with the seed valve.
1 TRUOG, E., Reports and Proceedings of the Joint Committee on Fertilizer Applica-
tion.
410 FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMEN l '
Figures 221 and 630 show a deflector to scatter and divi

fertilizer, thus preventing it from coming in contact with the see<
FIG. 629 .-Hill-dropping fertilizer attachment that operates automatically with t~

ing device of the planter.
667. For Tractor Planters.-Fertilizer attachments havE

designed to fit most tractor planters, both the drill and the ChE
types. Figure 631 shows a fertilizer attachment for tractor cott<
corn-drill planter.
rerhllzer
Hopper
FerHlizer
Spouf
Deflecfol"'
FIG. 630.~Fertilizer attachment with deflector tq scatter the fertilizer, reduci:
. contact between seed m\d fertilizer.
668. For Bean and Beet Planters.- A fertilizer attach men

bean and beet planter is shown in Fig. 632.
COMMERC IAL FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTORS 411
669. For Potato Planters.-Fertilizer attachments for potatoes should

be adjustable so that the amount of fertilizer applied per acre may be
varied from 200 to 1,000 pounds. Since potato sprouts are very sensitive
---
FIG. 631.-Fertilizer attachment for tractor planter.
•
to fertilizer salts, it is essential that the fertilizer be placed along the
•
sides of the seed at about the same level as shown in Fig. 633.
FIG. 632.-Beet and bean planter with fertilizer attachment. The fertilizer is distributed
in direct contact with the seed.
670. Grain-drill Fertilizer Attachments.-Fertilizer attachments for

grain drills consist of a specially constructed hopper having a partition
extending lengthwise through the middle (Fig. 634). The planting unit
is in the front half of the box , while the fertilizer
- unit is in the rear half.
412 FARM MACHI NERY AND EQUIPMENT
Many fertilizer drills release both seed and fertilizer through the same
tube. This is not good practice because t he seed . are in direct contact
with the fertilizer (A, F ig. 635) . A better method would be tcrrelease the
ferti lizer t hrough separate t ubes which will place the fertilizer in the
FIG. 633 .-Steps in distributing fertilizer when planting potatoes : 1. Opening furrow
for fertilizer; 2, d epositing the fer t il izer; 3, opening furrow and dropping potato set; 4
covering potato and fertilizer.
drills above the seed, as shown in B, Fig. 635. Figure 297 shows an
attach~ent by which the fertilizer is placed above the seed.
671. Cultivator Attachments.- A fertilizer attachment for cultivators
to apply a side dressing of fertilizer after the plants are well advanced is
shown in Fig. 636. The hopper for the fertilizer is mounted above the
FIG. 634 .....;.Cross-section of hopper showing grain and fertilizer feeds.
wheel--one for each side. The distributing mechanism is driven from the
wheel by a sprocket attached to the spokes.
The fertilizer is released through a tube, the lower end of which depos-
its t he fertilizer in the furro w behind one of the shovels, as shown in
Fig. 637.
BROADCAST LIME AND FERTILIZER S OWERS

Figure 638 shows a machine suitable for broadcasting either lime or
fertilizer. Usually, a wire screen is used
in the top of the hopper remove large
lumps and prevent clogging of the feeds .
The feeds drop the lime or fertilizer
FIG. 635.-Combination grain and fertilizer FIG. 636.-Fertilizer attach-

drill: A. fertilizer being released in the same tube ment for cultivator to apply side
in contact with the seed; B. Eeparate fertilizer tubes dressing to one or both sides of
whlch place fertilizer in the soil above the seed. plants while cUltivating.
FIG. 637.-Fertilizer being placed .in the soil behind the shovel by a cultivator-fertilizer
attachment.
on a scattering board which deflects . and scatters the material so that

it will be more thoroughly broadcasted.
An inexpensive end-gate lime spreader is shown in Fig. '639 . It is

similar in construction to t hat of the end-gate seeder with the exception
FIG. 638.-T wo views of agitator or reciprocating broadcast ferti lizer feed: A, looking
into box ; B, box inver ted with feed p lates and lower bottom cu~ay. a, upper bottom.
b, perforated feed plate, c, lower bottom with out lets.
that t he hopper is flush with the wagon box and the revolving scattering
disks are much closer to the ground.
FIG. 639.-End-gate lime sower or spreader.
FERTILIZER FEEDS
The efficiency of any fertilizer-distributing machine depends upon the

proper handling of the fertilizer by the feeding mechanism. There are a
number of factors that will influence the efficiency of the feed and some
are :
1. Climatic conditions, based on' temperature and rainfall.
"
2. Amount of fertilizer to be applied.
3. Kind of fertilizer:
a. Chemical composition.
b. Physical state.
Many attempts have been made to design a fertilizer feed that will
handle any.and all kinds of fertilizer, distributing any desired quantity.
As a result, several different types are being used. These may be classi-
£led as: •
1. Finger feed.
2. Disk feed. •
3. Screw-conveyor feed.
4. Revolving-bottom feed.
5. Vibrator feed.
6. Ro tary feed.
7. Winged-wheel feed.
672. Finger Feed.- The finger feed is also known as the star or wizard
feed. It is the most generally used type of fertilizer feed. F igures 640
A B c
FIG. 640.-Fertilizer feed taken apart in B; assembled in A; and a section of the hopper
with the feeds insta lled in C. A and B, a djustable gate; C, revolving disk; D, opening in
hopper bottom for fertilizer to drop through; E, hopper bottom.
to 642 show the various installations, adjustments, parts, and methods

of drive.
The feed consists of a finger plate in the bottom of the box. The
ferti lizer is caught by the fingers 0,11 the plat~ and carried through the gate
opening to the b~ck of the box w'here it is dropped into the spout. This
type of distributor is used in many different types of attachments, but is
more often used in the fertilizer drills.
The quantity of fertilizer distributed per acre is varied by changing
the speed of the plate and by regulating the gate opening. The speed
of the plate is controlled in a manner almost identical with that of the
internal double-run grain feed, as sllown in Fig. 642.
673. Marks or Cone Feed.-This consists of an inverted cone which
has a projecting lip, the whole of which is st~tionary (Fig. 643). Beneath
this lip there is a revolving plate that brings the fertilizer to the lip
which gath~rs up a certain amount and carries it to the center of the
cone and drops it through the spout into the soil. The quantity per
acre is controlled by varying the speed of the plate beneath the cone.
Different size cones can be secured for distributing different types of
fertilizers and are known as the 'standard, half-standard, double-standard,
416 FA RM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
and hen manure. The one big objection to this type of feeder is t hat
damp fertilizer will stick to the inside and fail to drop out through the
spout.
FIG. 64l.-Finger feed wit h ver t ical agit a tors.
FIG. 642. -F er t ilizer feed showing gate closed a nd open, and dri ving mechanism.
674. Winged-wheel Feed.- Figure 644 shows a fertilizer sower that

is equipped with winged wheels to distribute the fertilizer. The fertilizer
COMMEfUiIAL FERTILIZER DI STRIB U TORS 417
•
is carried by a shaker box to the feeds which drop it on the distributing
wheels.
FIG. M 3.- The m arks or con e fer tilizer feed : A, various p ar ts of the feed ; B, the feed
assembled.
675. Screw-conveyor Feed.-This type of feed is shown in F ig. 64.5.

A screw conveyor is placed in t he b ot tom of the hopper to convey the
fertilizer out. Above t he conveyor is an agita tor to keep the fertilize r
from bridging.
FIG. 644.- Winged wheels to distr ibute fer t ilizer.
676. Revolving-bottom Feed.- The revolving-bottom fertilizer feed ,

as shown in Fig. 646, is used rather extensively on attachments for
planters and cultivators. The fertilizer in the hopper rests on a rotating
bottom; as t he bottom revolves, the contents are constantly agitated
to keep them from bridging. As the bottom revolves, the outer portion of
the fertilizer is carried against a stationary feed plow or inclined plane
which scoops out a quantity and ejects it into the fertilizer tube.
The amount of fertilizer is regulated by raising or lowering the
hopper. Raising increases t he feed , while lowering decreases the feed.
677. Vibrator or Knocker Feed.-The vibrator feed is used on both

the machines that apply fertilizer as a separate operat.ion and those that
apply it at the same t ime seed are sown.
FIG. 645.-Screw-conveyor fertilizer feed.
FIG. 646.-Working parts of fertilizer attachment shown in Fig. 627; A, shows the
revolving bottom B with agitator attached . The stationary plow D deflects a quantity
of t he fertilizer over t he side into t he spout; C, control cranks ; F, hopper which fits on the
hopper bottom.
FIG. 647.-Vibrator or knocker distributor mounted on a one-row riding cotton and corn
planter.
Fig re 647 shows the vibrator feed arrangement mounted on a
one-row riding planter. The vibrator arm is operated by a detachable
gear on the main axle. An adjustable gate in the bottom of the hopper
allows more or less fert.ilizer to be shaken out depending on the settjng.
678. Rotary-winged Feed.-For lime and fertilizer sowers special
rotary::-winged feeds are used, as shown in Fig. 648. The feed shafts are
in two parts and can be lifted out to facilitate cleaning of the hopper.
One-half of the feed is driven by each wheel.
679. Top-delivery Feed.-The top-delin:l'Y feed (Fig. 649) will
distribute accurate amounts of fertilizer in a continuous uniform band.
RO"tA RY WINHO fEED
FIG. 64S.-The rotary-winged fertilizer feed is easily removed. •
The hopper revolves and t urns a scre"w, which raises the hopper bottom
so that from one to four stationary adjustable-delivery blades in the
hopper head scrape off a uniform amount of fertilizer into the tubes.
FIG. 649_Top-delivery fertilizer feed. (U. S. Dept. Aur. Bur. Aur. Eng.)
By changing the size of either gears qr sprockets, the speed at which the
hopper revolves can be changed, thus changing the rate of fertilizer
applicatio~.
PART XII
TRANSPORTATI ON EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER XXXIV
WAGONS, MOTOR TRUCKS, AND TRAILERS

Among the various changes taking place in farm equipment -and
agricultural practices is the method of transporting farm commodities.
Three general types of vehicles are used to transport farm products and
supplies on the farm and to and from market; namely, the wagon, the
motor truck, and the automobile or truck trailer. The use of the farm
wagon is now confined almost entirely to the farmstead, but the motor
truck and automobile trailer are used not only on the farm but for trans-
porting commodities to and from market. The fast motor vehicles are
rapidly replacing the slow horse-drawn wagons.
THE FARM WAGON

There are two classes of wagons: the farm truck and the farm wagon.
680. The Farm Truck.-The farm truck consists of front and rear
gears! and four low steel wheels of the same. diameter (Fig. 650).
L
FIG. 650.-Farm truck.
681. The Farm Wagon.-The farm wagon is made in sizes suitable for
use with one horse or a team of two or more horses. Where only one
horse or mule is available for power, the one-horse wagon is used, but
where a farm requires a team of two or more horses or mules, the two-
horse wagon prevails (Fig. 652) . Heavy wagons for four, six, and eight
horses can be obtained_ There is usually a difference of about four
inches in t he diameters of the rear and front wheels.
682. Selecting a Wagon.-In selecting a 'wagon the following points
should be considered: the height or diameter of the wheels, the width of
\ The wagon without the box is termed the running gear.
420
WAGONS, MOTOR TRUCKS, AND TRAILERS 421
tire, strength and capacity, and the kind of box. Detail points of con-
struction that are important are: materials of construction, especially the
felloe;l dish of the wheels; thickness and width of tires; construction of
gears, type of tongue (whether stiff or drop type); kind of axles, kind of
bearings, size and type of box. Wagon wheels should have front and
FIG. 651.-SteeI-gear farm truck.
bottom gather. In an automobile these are called toe-in and camber.

In either case they serve the same purpose.
683. Draft of Wagons.-The draft of wagons is influenced by three
principal factors; namely, axle friction, rolling resistance, and grade
resistance. .
Axle friction is the resistance caused by the wheel box or bearing
turning about the axle or skein. Rolling resistance is influenced by the
FIG. 652. -Two-horse farm wagon, equipped with seat and brake Bupplied as extra
equipment.
height of the wheels, the width of tires, and the nature of the surface
supporting the wheel. When a wheel sinks in a surface, the effect is
practically the same as rolling up an incline. Tables XXIV and XXV
shQw the influence of the height of wheels and width of wheels.
Tests to determine the influence of the width of tire on the draft were
also conducted by Wooley and Jones. The results are shown in
Table XXV.
1 The felloe is the wood rim around the spoke ends over which the iron tire is fitted.
TABLE XXIV.-DRAFT OF ' " AGON WITH WHEELS OF DIFFERENT HEIGHT AND ON
DIFFERENT l\:INDS OF ROADWAY'
Height of wheels
Kind of roadway
Low Medium High
Worn brick pavement .............. . . .... . 115.8 98.0 97.0

New brick pavement . . ............. . ..... . 89 .5 73.5 70 .7
Concrete pavement .. . ... . ..... . . .. . ..... . 93.7 87.5 82.0
Macadam .................. . ... . ........ . 112.4 105. If
Dirt road, dry . .. ...... .. ........ .. . ..... . 388.5 347.9 333.8
Dirt road, muddy .................... . 441.1 367 .8 342.;3
Cinder roadway, dry ..... . 164.4 128.9
1 Ann. Rept. Mo .•4(/r. Expt. Sta . Bull. 210, 1922-1923.
TABLE XXV.-DRAFT OF WAGON WITH TillES OF DIFFERENT WIDTH AND ON

DIFF'ERENT KINDS OF ROADWAY'
Width of tires
Kind of roadway
Narrow, I
131 inches 4 inches
Wide,
Worn brick pavement .. ' .. . . 99 9 81.6

New brick pavement ... . . .... . 82.4 75.4
COllrt'ete pavement .... . . .... . 93.0 83.8
Dirt road, dry .. . ....... ... . . 357.4 310.0
Di.rt road, u1uddy . ... .... .. . . 360 .6 363.0
1 Anti. Rept. Mo. A (IT. Expt. Sta. Bull. 210, p. 33, 1922-1923.
Grade resistance depends upon the grade of the' road or the rise in feet
per 100 feet. The follo"ing table gives the draft per ton of load for a
wagon on a level road and for various percentages of grades on different
road surfaces.
TABLE XXVI.-lliFLOENCE OF GRADE ON DRAFT OF WAGONS
Grade, percentage
Macadam, Gravel, Iearth,
Sand or
pouuds
I pounds pounds
Level. ........... . ................ . 50 • 140 240

1 70 160 260
2 90 180 280
5 150 240 340
10 250 340 340
15 350 440 540
WAGONS, MOTOR 'TRUCKS, AND TRAILERS 423
MOTOR TRUCKS
The motor truck is becoming as es ential to the farmer as it is to the

merchant. The type of hauling required by the truck varies with the type
FIG. 653.-Half-ton light delivery pickup truck.
FIG. 654.-0ne-and-one-half-ton truck equipped with general-purpose stake body.
FIG. 655.-0ne-imd-one-half-ton truck equipped with high rack body sui table for livestock.
of 1'arming, which may be dairy, poultry, general livestock , grain, fruit,

vegetable gardening, or cotton farming. Consequently, the type and
size of truck will vary according to the needs of t he particular type of
farm. The sizes of motor trucks are rated ar.cording to capacity and
range from Yz ton to 2 tons. ' The popular sizes are the H-, 1-, and lYz-ton
sizes. Figure 653 shows a ~-ton light-delivery pickup truck, and

Fig. 654 shows a l Y2-ton stake-body truck. Tight box bodies for hauling
grain are available.
684. Cost of Operating Trucks.-The cost of operating a truck will
vary with the size, type of hauling, road conditions, size of load, topog-
raphy, and other factors.
Church 1 found in his study of motor truck operation that the cost
per mile varied from 7.8 cents for the }1-ton size for hauling crops to •
20.7 cents for the 2-ton size. The cost per ton-mile for hauling crops
ranged from 37.3 cents for the smaller trucks to 15.8 cents for the larger
size.
TRAD..ERS
There is a decided trend in farm transportation to use trailers behind
both trucks and automobiles. When a small trailer is hitched behind an
automobile, farm products and supplies can be transported to and from
market at little extra expense. A trailer also saves the family car from
much abuse and the occupants are able to ride in comfort. A trailer will
add much to the capacity of a truck, especially the small light-delivery
pickup type.
FIG. 656.-A one-wheel trailerette.
686. Types of Trailers.-Trailers may be classed according to their

whe 1 equipment as the one-wheel, two-wheel, and four-wheel types.
There are, of course, the two-wheel heavy-duty industrial trailers equipped
with dual tires.
686. The One-wheel Trailer.-Figure 656 shows a light one~wheel
"trailerette," which provides a convenient means of transporting small
light articles. Open or closed wheels can be supplied. Brackets on each
1 U. S. Dept. Agr. BuU. 1254, p. 23, 1924.
of the two front corners attach to the bumper of the car, thus giving
horizontal rigidity but vertical flexibility for uneven surfaces. The
FIG. 657.- Low-platform two-wheel trailer.
FlO. 658.-Two-wheel general-utility trailer. Note the folding legs to support front of
trailer when Dot hitched to car.
FIG. 659.-Two-wheel trailer transporting a horse.
single wheel under the trailer castors permits the car and trailer to be
parked, backed, and turned without attention to the trailer.
687. The Two-wheel Trailer.-Two-wheel trailers suitable for farm
use are shown in Figs. 657, 658, and 659. The local blacksmith makes
small trailers of this type out of discarded automobile chassis at a low

cost. They can, however, be purchased from commercial concerns at
FIG. 660.-Two-wheel trailer transporting a tractor.
prices as low as $65.00. The trailer shown in Fig. 659 is equipped with
high sides for transporting horses, cattle, and other livestock. A low
II
FIG. 661.-Four-wheel combination farm truck and trailer.
platform trailer is shown in Fig. 660 hauling a tractor behind a light

Yz-ton pickup truck.
F.IG. 662.-Four-wheel trailer hitched to a tractor.
When the two-wheel trailer is properly hitched, there is rio tendency for
it to whip and moderately rapid speeds can be made with this type.
688. The Four-wheel Trailer.-Figure 661 shows a commercially

built four-wheel trailer, which can be used with an automobile, truck, or
tractor (Fig. 662), and with teams by sub-
stituting a pole for the trailer hitch.
The wheels are equipped with roller bear-
ings, demountable rims, and pressure
fittings for good lubrication. A rigid con-
struction prevents whipping.
689. Two-wheel Trailer Hitches.-
Numerous methods have been used for
hitching trailers, and some of them are FIG. trailer
good, but some are poor makeshifts
and dangerous for high speeds and rough conditions.
Tbe ball-and-socket connection shown in Fig. 663 is considered an
excellent hitch. It is easily attached and detached. The sleeve just
FIG. 664.-Trailer hitch equipped with automatic bra ke.
back of the ball is under spring pressure and can be drawn back to permit
one side of the socket to swing ou a hinge, releasing the socket from
the ball. The ball-and-socket co ction gives flexibility in all directions,
FIG. 665.-Showing construction and applica tion of hitch for four-wheel trailer.
but at the same time it maintains rigidity and prevents whipping of the
trailer. The hitch shown in Fig. 664 is equipped with an automatic
braking device. When brakes are applied on the car the trailer pushes
forward on the hitch and automatically applies the brakes on the trailer
without attention from the driver.
690. Four-wheel Trailer Hitches.-A hitch similar to the one shown in
Fig. 665 can be obtained suitable for hitching almost any automobile
FIG. 666.-Details of four-wheel trailer hitch for 1935 Ford V-S.
chassis behind another car or truck. Figure 666 shows a connection for a
1935 Ford V-8 automobile. To prevent whipping the tie rod must be held
rigid and there should not be looseness in the other connections of the
steering mechanism. The front wheels must be properly adjusted for
toe-in and camber.
PART XIII
CLEANING AND GRADING MACHI NERY
CHAPTER XXXV
CLEANERS AND GRADERS

The importance of cleaning grain before marketing and the cleaning
and grading of seed before planting is being recognized by grain growers
m.ore and more every year. The selection of good seed is a very essential
step in the production of any crop. Certified seed breeders practice
cleaning and grading of the seed they plant and sell.
Black 1 states that in 1923 the average wheat dockage of North
Dakota was 11.3 per cent, and over 15 per cent of the flax crop was
dockage; that Dakota produced over 9,000 carloads of dockage that
year.
The Federal Grain Standards define dockage for wheat as sand, weed
seeds, weed stems, chaff, straw, grain other than wheat, and any other
foreign material which can be removed readily from the wheat by use
of appropriate sieves, cleaning devices, or other practical means suited
to separate the foreign material present.
691. Type of Cleaners.-There are several types of grain-cleaning
machines. Some types are suited for use in elevators or large granaries;
other types are adaptable for farm use.
In general, grain cleaners and grain graders clean and grade the seeds
according to:
1. The size of the seeds.
2. The shape of the seeds.
3. The specific gravity of the seeds.
4. The combinations of either size, shape, or weight of the seeds.
The actual separation is accomplished by means of sieves and air, by

c:rlinders, and by pockets in the si f disks or belts. The cleaners
using sieves and air methods of separatIOn are termed fanning mills.
692. Fanning Mills.-Fanning -mills are made in sizes suitable for
use in elevators and on farms. Figure 667 shows a cross-sectional view
of a mill used in elevators, while Fig. 668 shows a cross-section of a small
farm fanning mill.
1 Agr. Eng., Vol. 6, No.8, p. 180, 1925.
429
FARM MACHINERY AND IjJQUIPMENT
The grain to be cleaned is poured into a hopper on top of the mill

from which it is fed on to the sieves or screens. These sieves are shaken
either sidewise or endwise. In the side-shake mill, the movement of
the sieves is at right angles to the flow of grain, while in the end-shake
type, the movement is parallel to the flow of the grain.
FIG. 667.-Cross-section of elevator-type fanning mill using air and sieves. Air suction
removes dust and chaff as the grain is fed into the machine while the sieves separate the
dockage from the wheat. .
The number of sieves used and the angle at which they are set vary
in the different makes of fanning mills. It is always best to follow the
operating directions furnished by the manufacturer. Different types
of perforated sieves a nd screens can be placed in the machine to clean
and grade different kinds of seeds.
CLEANERS AND GRADERS 431
The fan should furnish a blast of air of sufficient volume and velocity
to remove dust, pieces of straw, and light, immature, and diseased
seeds. The blast can be regulated by the wind boards on each end of
the fan-case housing.
In fanning mills the blast may operate through, above, under, parallel
to, or at right angles to the sieve and grain.
693. Oat Kickers.-The machine shown in Fig. 669 is commonly
called an oat kicker . It differs from the fanning mill ill that the sieves
are placed at a great angle and are similar in construction to the chaffer
of a thresher. The wheat kernels pass through the angle in the throat
::>'.
:.~hlAR6U)
YICJll'~NLaPr,ACI..
AT ChD or ,sILV£ .s"OWIIY '-i--+---~
IfIOr.ilfR.,. HOTIO/Y IMPA.I!lrcD
rv DR"'4'" 01' tJ1A:Sr.
MARI(ET
(iRAIf'I
FIG, 668.-Cross-section of a faltm fruming mill.
of the sieve, while the oats, being too long to pass through this angle, are
kicked backward in the direction of the throw of the sieve or riddle and
are finally discharged from the machine. The wheat kernels and fine
seeds fall through the sieves on a screen below, where the fine seeds are
screened from the wheat.
694. Disk Cleaner and Grader.-The disk type of cleaner, as shown in
Fig. 671, is also called a pocket cleaner, because there are sieves of pocketed
vertical disks used as the separating mechanism. In cleaning wheat,
the weed seeds that are shorter than the wheat kernels fall into and
remain in the pockets. Then, as the disk pa& upward through the grain
and the 'weed seeds the latter are carried out.... the grain and discharged
into a trough or hopper. Since the wheat kernels and wild oats are too
FIG. 669._:'_Wild oat kicker: .ct, section of sieve or riddle; B, cross-section of machine.
(U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull . 1542. )
FIG. 670.-Fanning mill equipped with variable-speed pulleys by which the strength of the
air blast and the number of vibrations per minute of the screens can be varied.
long to remain in the pockets, they are moved 'to another part of . the
machine in which the pockets are large enough to remove the wheat
kernels from the wild oats (Fig. 671) .
Disk cleaners are built in sizes suitable for use with threshing machines,
on combines in farm granaries (Fig. 672), and small elevators.
695. Gravity Separator.- The spiral gravity separator (Fig. 673)
utilizes both the difference in shape of the seeds and the difference in
weight. As a stream of seed flows down the flat spiral incline, d ie
FIG. 671.-Sectional view of farm-size disk cleaner with cross-sections of the disks used.
heavier seed move faster and swing to the outside of the chute and are
separated from the lighter seed.
CYLINDER CLEANERS AND GRADERS
696. For Wheat.-The cylinder cleaner and grader, as shown in

Fig. 674, operates on the same general principle as that of the disk cleaner.
Instead of pockets on the sides of disks, however, there are indented
pockets on the inside circumference of the cylinder (Fig. 675).
The wheat and small seeds are caught in the pockets and carried
upward out of the oats and dropped into a conveyor trough and con-
veyed separately out of the cylinder. Further separation of weed seeds
and wheat is accOl::nplished in another cylinder having pockets of suitable
size (Fig. 675). The size and capacity of the machine are determined by
the number of cylinders used.
697. For Corn.-A small inexpensivc cylinder corn grader is shown in
Fig. 676. It consists of a single or double cylinder with sections having
different size holes to allow different size kernels to pass through. One
end of the cylinder is lower than the other which causes the kernels to
move along inside the cylinder until they come to the section having the
proper size outlet.
.SM .... LL.AND

SHRIVEl..ED WHEAT
COCKLE. WILD PEAS . WILD

BUCKWHEAT,PIGEON GRASS ETC .•
FlG. 672.-Double-disk cleaner suitable for small granaries.
698. For Cotton.-Cylinder graders are also used to grade cottonseed

(Fig. 677). The cylinder is constructed, as in the case of the corn grader,
with sections having different sized holes. In general, the action is
similar to that of a sieve, but instead of a vibrating action there is a revolv-
ing movement to agitate the seed.
699. For Peanuts.-Figure 678 shows a cylinder constructed to grade
pealluts.
FIG. 673.-Spiral gravity separator.
FIG. 674.-Longitudinal view of triple-cylinder cleaner.

FIG. 675.-Cross-section of cylinder cleaner with enJarged sections showing the action of
the pockets.
FIG. 676.-Double-cylinder COIn grader.
Cv//seed
gracle seed
'.v'e:'(..un,,,
'.Loc and bur'; f.rstgraclep/cmft'nqseecl

FIo. 677.-Cylinde. cleaner for cottonseed.
700. Belt Separator.-The belt separator shownin Fig. 679 separates

round from unround seeds by means of an endless up-t~av~l belt, the pitch
FIG. 678.- P eanut grader.
FIG. 679.-Belt cleaner to separate round from unround seed.
of which can be changed. As the belt travels upward, the round seed
roll down and off the lower side, and the unround seed are carried up and
over the upper side and discharged into a hopper.
PART XIV
SOIL- AND WATER-CONSERVATION MACHINERY
CHAPTER XXXVI
TERRACING MACHINERY
The wOTid, especially the United States of America, is becoming con-
scious of the tremendous soil and water losses from agricultural lands. Of
the many methods used to combat these losses, terracing is one of the fore-
. - most. Consequently, machinery
for building and maintaining ter-
races is becoming an essential farm
tool. Terracing machines range
in size from the small walking plow
that may be drawn by one or two
mules to the large road-building
machine drawn by a 60-hors~power
tractor. Between these extremes
FIG. G80.-Terracing plow.
are the V-drags and ditchers, both
homemade and commercial types; ditcher-graders of many sizes; elevat-
ing graders; and a number of special machines. A successful terracing
machine must be adaptable to.work efficiently in all soil types, on gradual
and steep slopes, on smooth or gullied
land, in small and large fields, in cultivated
fields and in pastures, in stumpy and rocky
fields, and in dry and wet soils. 1
701. Plows.-A popular type of plow
for the building of terraces is the walk:mg
moldboard plow equipped with a long FIG. B8l.-Slip scraper.
grader blade-like moldboard (Fig. 680).
These plows are suitable for building low terraces on moderate slopes.
The time and labor required to build terraces with such small equipment
are ex( (.' sive. 2
Disk plows may hI' used to build terrace ridges, but they do not move
~oil so great a horizontal distance as do moldboard plows. They are also
awkward to handle when used on a ridge.
1 Agr. Eng., Vol. 16, No.1, pp. 3 and 5, 1935.
2 Agr. Eng., Vol. 16, No.1, p . 3, 1935.
438
TERRACING MACHINERY 439
702. Slip Scrapers.-Slip scrapers (Fig. 681) are used in making fills
where the terrace crosses gullies.
703. Fresno.-The fresno is not only used in making fills but also for
building the terrace. Both horse-drawn (Fig. 682) and tractor-power
dump types (Fig. 683) are used. One ohjection to the fresno is that the
surface soil for a considerable dis-
tance on each side of the terrace is
scraped off in ' building the terrace.
Graders cut into and throw up much
subsoil. A smooth terrace cannot
be built with fresnos.
704. V-drags and Graders.- The
wooden V-drag when properly con-
structed will move a good volume of .
loose soil several feet horizontally. FIG. 682.-Horse-drawn fresno.
A well-designed wooden V-drag is
shown in Fig. 684. A grader-blade cutting-edge plate is attached to
the wing. The landside and wing are covered with light galvanized
sheet iron to provide better scouring surfaces.
Steel V-type terra.cers are equipped with a lever and front wheel
assembly to raise and lower the front end (Fig. 685). An adjustable
FIG. 683.- Tractor rotary fresno.
rolling coulter attached to the rear end of the landside gives lighter draft
and holds the landside when a heavy load is carried on the blade. Exten-
sion bars push and smooth the soil beyond the end of the blade.
Construction costs with the steel V-type terracer are higher than when
graders are used. Plowing to loosen the soil so the terracer can handle it
is one factor that makes the cost high.
705. Three-wheel or Light-terracing Grader.-These terracers are
pulled by teams or small farm tractors. When a small amount of power
FIG. 684. -Home made wood V -drag. Note how the seat serves as a runner when turning.
The small inset shows m ovement of soil by blade.
FIG. 685.-Steel V-drag. FIG. 686.-Three-wheel light ter-

r acer grader.
\
is available on the farm, the terraces can be economically constructed
wi th the small terrace graders. l
This type of terracing machine is composed of a grader blade 6 to 8 feet
long suspended under a beam (Figs. 686 and 687). Two coulter-like
FIG. 687.-Side view of three-wheel terracer.
wheels are attached to the rear of the blade to provide a means of raising
and lowering and in firm soil aids in overcoming side thrusts when loaded.
A tongue truck supports the front end of the beam when horses supply the
power, but it is removed when the machine is drawn by tractors. Provi-
sion is made for angling the blade, both to the right and to the left.
706. Two-wheel Terracer.- The two-wheel terracer is so called
b.ecause the rear of the machine is supported and carried on two wheels
FIG. 688.-Two-wheel terracer.
(Fig. 688), and the front attaches directly to the tractor by some form of
"gooseneck" hitch (Fig. 689). This arrangement permits short turns,
makes it possible to work closer to the ends, and saves time in turning.
1 Agr. Eng., VoL 16, No.1, p. 3, 1935. •
A tongue truck can be supplied if desired (Fig. 689). The heavy channel-
iron box frame is welded together, giving rigidity and strength. The
frame is arched over the blade and provides ample clearance. The blade
FIG. 689 .- T ongue t ruck and gooseneck hitch for two-wheel t".racer.
is raised and lowered "by lifting cranks, operated by a hand-driveL!- worm

gear.
Two-wheel terracers are built in two sizes. The smaller weighs about
1,400 pounds and may be equipped with 8- or 9-foot blades. The larger
machine weighs about 4,600 pounds and is eq ipped with a 10-foo t blade.
Simple devices are provided for changing the pitch, reversing and hori-
F IG. 690.-1 wo-wheel tractor terracer construct ing a terrace.
zontal shifting of the 1 lade. With a trained tractor driver the two-wheel
terracer can be handled as accurately on a terrace ridge as the four-wheel
grader.
Ordinarily, from six to ten round trips are required to construct a
standard broad-base terrace with a 10-foot blade. The number of
rounds required depend upon the condition of the land, type of soil, si~e
of terrace, and whether the soil is loose or hard.
707. Four-wheel Terracers or Road Graders.-Large-sized road
graders (Fig. 691) and the power required to pull them are too expensive
FIG. 691.-Four-wheel or road-grader terracer .
for the average farm. Unless several hundred acres are to be terraced,
such an investment would not be justifiable. Most terracing with road
machinery, therefore, is done with county or government owned equip-
ment. A flat charge of from $2.50 to $3.50 per hour is the usual rate.
In some sections farmers are cooperatively purchasing this type of equip-
ment for terracing purposes. There are some sections where the charges
made for use of such machinery are the
actual operating expenses. On these
terms costs range from $1.37 to $1.84
per hour. 1,2
, Building terraces requires stronger
and more durable machines than are
required for road building. Efficient
construction of terraces requires that
the blade be loaded to capacity at all
times. Pulling a heavily loaded ma-
chine over rough land and around
sharp curves will test the durability of A B
any machine. Well-built road-grading FIG. 692.-Cutting angles of grader
blade: A, angle for moving loose soil;
. terracers weigh from 10,000 to 14,000 B, angle for deep cutting.
pounds and may be equipped with 10-,
12-, or 14-foot blades. On sandy loam soils these machines are capable
of throwing up a terrace 18 to 24 inches in height and 24 to 26 feet in
width in three to six round trips.
708. Elevating Graders.-The elevating grader is used to a limited
extent where terraces are large. This machine requires a high initial
1 Agr. Eng., Vol. 16, No.8, p. 315, 1935.
2 Proceedings of Fourth Southwest Soil and Water Conservation Conference, 1933.
444 'FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
investment and is so complicated and requires so much power for operation

that is is difficult to economically construct terraces with it. Generally
wpere a 75-horsepower tractor and elevating grader are used a terrace core
~
~
~
~ (-Heighf 18"-24"
',_
FIG. 693.-Terrace built with two-wheel terracer shown in Fig. 688. The 'ftlrrace is built
from both sides. After fourth round terraee is finished from upper side.
can be built in three or four rounds (Fig. 696) after which the channel is
cleaned out and the terrace smoothed up in two or three rounds with a
12-foot blade grader.
Trip six
~:~rl.~
k.~
Clean out channel Trip seven
FIG. 694.- ,'Terrace built from upper side.
The Missouri Experiment Station has developed a small power take-
off elevating terracer that moves a good volume of earth (Fig. 697).
In Missouri a 20-horsepower wheel-type tractor with the Wooley elevat-
ing tcrracer required 53 man-hours and 53 tractor-terracer-hours ',to
construct a mile of terrace containing 2,825 cubic yards per mile. In

Iowa with a 22-horsepower tractor the outfit required 66 man-hours and
66 tractor-terracer-hours to construct a mile of terrace containing 2,863
yards per mile. 1
709. The Whirlwind Rotary Terracer.-Thjs terracer con&ists of a
shortened moldboard plow to cut and lift a
furrow slice up into a rapidly revolving
vertical power-driven auger, which throws A hea'lCYc,~a,o,oro>:i/ll'7k,t,~
the soil to the side 2 (Fig. 698). In operation
the auger revolves about 1,060 revolutions
per minute and the tractor travels about 5
miles per hour. In Iowa with a 22-horse-
power wheel-type tractor, the whirlwind
terracer ' required 50' man-hours and 50 ~-!6Ito!.;'lwh'e--~
tractor-terracer-hours to construct a mile of
terrace containing 1,899 cubic yards per
mile. l
710. Cost of Constructing Terraces.-
There are so many variables that enter into
terracing costs' that it is hard to arrive at a
definite estimate. Numerous methods of
calculating costs have been tried but the
best seems to be based on the cost per foot,
per 100 feet,10r per mile of constructed Thi
terrace. Terraces in the Southeastern States
average from 12 to 18 feet in width. In the
Southwestern States terraces 20 to 24 feet
wide and 18 inches high are recommended.
In the high plains of the Middlewest they
range from 40 to 50 feet in width. The Soil
Conservation Service has adopted as a FIG. 695.-Showing angle of
standard a width of 24 feet and a height of blade and cut for the first three
rounds in constructing terrace
18 inches with a 3-foot top width. Steep with a road machine.
slopes require closer spacing of terraces than
more gentle slopes. Hoover 3 enumerates the factors that must be con-
sidered in calculating the cost of terracing as follows:
1. The field or area terraced, including lineal feet of terrace necessary, the
slope in per cent, soil type (surface and subsoil), vegetative cover, number of
gullies to be crossed, and weather.
1 Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Dept. Agr., unpublished data.
2 Agr. Eng., Vol. 16, No.1, p. 6, 1935.
3 Agr. Eng., Vol. 17, No.2, p . 51, 1936.
FIG. 696.-Large elevating grader building a terrace.
,_"~,~
.. .
(Courtesy ,lIo. Aur. Expt . Sta.)

FIG. 697.-Light elevating grader. '
, -
. \
I
FIG. 698.-Whirlwind terracer.

2. The terrace built, including cross-section (height, width, and average

distance dirt is moved laterally), and length.
3. The equipment, including size and make, condition, and skill of operators.
• 4. Cost of equipment and operating cost, including fuel consumption, grease
used, depreciation, repairs and maintenance, interest on investment, and labor
cost (operators).
5. Cost of engineering and supervision.
6. Cost of fresJ;lo or other work to bring low spots up to grade.
7. Outlet cost.
FIG. 699.-Bull-dozer filling gully.
FIG. 700.-Speciai sod cutter and contouring plow.
When all of these factors are considered the cost arrived at is for the
completed job and fully protected land. If all costs are not included, it
would be like a man figuring the cost of laying the foundation as the total
cost of his house. Unless the low spots and gullies are filled and outlets
constructed, a terrace might as well not be built at all.
Ward 1 states that eight terracing associations in Virginia built

terraces at an average cost of $22.50 per mile.
Carter and Hulburt 2 state that the Rural Rehabilitation Corporation
constructed terraces in Arkansas at $17.85 per mile. These costs do not
include outlet construction or fills.
Baird 3 estimates the cost of building terraces in East Texas at $30.00
per mile, or more.
Data presented by Ayres 4 show the cost of constructing a terrace in
Iowa was $30.97 per mile when a 15-27 tractor and grader were used and
$32.65 when a general-purpose tractor and three-wheel farm grader were
used. He also gives data on the cost of constructing terraces with
several other types of machines.
TABLE XXVII.-CoST OF CONSTRUCTING 124 MILES OF TERRACE IN THE VICINITY
OF SAN ANGELO, TEXAS
Miles of
Trans- Depre- Total Cost
Inumber
Total Number
terrace Labor Fuel of hours
~'m"r .~~.
portation eiation cost
built per mile
runrung
---,- ------
124 $1511, 26 $211,12 $528.78 $1254.21 $3505,67 $28.27 2110 17,01
NOTlI: Lab!>r charge 0.335 cent per hour.

Depreciation on tractor 0.471 cent per hour.
DepreciatIon on grader 0.121 cent per hour.
Transportation of crew to and from work charged at the rate of 0.02 cent per hour.
1 Extension Service Rev., Vol. 7, No.7, p. 105, 1936.

2 Agr. Eng., Vol. 17, No. 12, p. 511, 1936.
3 Agr. Eng., Vol. 16, No.1, p. 5, 1935.
4Soil Erosion and Its Control, McGraw-Hill Bo'ok Company, Inc., p. 168, 1936.
INDEX
A Bolts, 38
types of, 38
Acme harrow, 127 carriage, 38
Alfalfa drill, 195 machine, 38
Angle of disk-plow bottoms, 87 plow, 38
Angling of disk-harrow gangs, 132, 136 stove, 39
tire, 39
Bordeaux spray nozzle, 234
Brass,. 17
Babbitt, 18, 33 Broadcast seeders, 196
of bearing, 33 duty of, 198
Back furrow, 56 end-gate, 197
Barn equipment for hay, 265 knapsack, 197
Basin lister, 75 two-wheel, 197
Bean cultivators, 220 wheelbarrow, 199
Bean planters, 182 Bronze, 18, 33
Bearings, 30 Bumpers on disk harwws, 130
babpitting of, 33 Bundle carriers, 282, 296
on disk harrows, 129 Burr feed grinder, 377
heating of, 32 Bushings, 32
types of. 30 1"., kinds of, 32
ball, 31 babbitt, 33
plain or splitc 31 bronze, 33
roller, 31 oilless, 32
self-aligning, 31 wood,33
solid,30
Beet cultivators, 220
Beet diggers, 316
Beet planters, 182 Calibration of grain drill, 190
Belt, 19 Cam, 37
care of, 24 Cast iron, 15
creep, 23 chilled, 16
kinds, 19 malleable, 15
canvas, 21 Cast-iron land roller, 140
leather, 20 Center, of disk-plow bottom, 88
rubber, 20 of load, 89
V~belts, 21
of moldboard plow bottom, 86, 89
of power, 89
lacing, 22
of resistance of plow, 86
precautions for, 23
Chains, 27
rules for, 23 kinds of, hook, 27
Binders (see Corn binders; Grain binders) pintle, 27
Blades, for disk harrows, 128 roller, 27
for plows, 78, 88 Check-row planter, 145
449
450 F ARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Check wire, 152 Corn binders, shafts, 293

Chisel plow, 73 countershaft, 293
Cleaners and graders, 429 crank shaft, 294
belt, 437 tractor binders, 298
cylinder, 433 wheels, 292
corn, 433 grain, 293
cotton, 434 main, 292
peanuts, 434 Corn pickers, 300
wheat, 433 clutches on, 303
dIsk, 431 elevators for, 303
gravity separator, 433 harvesting costs with, 303
fanning mills, 429 huskihg rolls on, 303
oat kicker, 431 snapping rolls on, 302
types of, 429 Corn planters, 145
Clutches, 35 check row, 145
types of, 35 attachments for, 155, 157
friction, 35 back frame, 147
positive, 35 clutch, 148
snap, 36 feed shaft, 147
Combined harvester-thresher, 336 front frame, 147
advantages, 346 furrow opener, 155~
attachments for, 345 operation of, 152
auxiliary engine, 344 valves, 151
cost of operation, 346 variable drop, 150
cutting unit, 337 wheels for, 146
canvas, 339 wire, 152
cutter bar, 338 draft of, 158
platform, 338 duty of, 157
reel, 339 .four-row, 154
disadvantages, 346 hand, 145
duty of, 347 one-row walking, 145
grain weigher on, 344 plates for, 148
harvesting losses with, 349 row markers, 157
sizes of, 336 Corn shellers, 350
straw spreader, 344 capacity of, 353
threshing unit, 339 cylirider, 351
cylinder and concaves, 339 spring, 350
feeder house, 339 Cost, of baling hay with pick-up baler,
recleaner, 343 264
separating apparatus, 340 of combining grain, 346
J shoe, 342 of dusting by airplane, 231
t' types of, 336 of ginning cotton, 376
Corn binders, 292 of harvesting cotton, 310
binding attachment on, 295 of operating corn binder, 299
bundle cf<rriers 01\, 296 of operatihg trucks, 424
bundle elevators, '297
of picking corn, 304
corn-borer 1\.ttacbment for, 2~~
of plowing, 117
cost of use, 299
cutting p:uts, 294 of terracing; 445
dutyof,299 of threshing, 332
elevating chains, 295 Cotton choppers, 222
frame, 292 Cotton driers, 376
INDEX 451
Cotton gins, 356 Cotton pla.nters, first improved, 159
baling apparatus, 369 four-row, 173
press box, 369 . frame for, 161
presses, 371 furrow openers for, 169
size and type of, 369 hill drop for, 165
trampers for, 370 modern types, 160
bur extractors, 374 one-row walking, 160
cleaner feeder, 362 one-row riding, 161
cleaners, types of, 371 two-row, 172
condenser, 368 primitive types of, 159
cottonseed conveyors, 375 tractor type, 172
driers for, 376 variable depth attachment, 166
elevator distributors, 360 variable drop for, 167
auger, 362 wheels for, 162
belt distributor, 360 Coulters and jointers, 58
pneumatic, 360 Covering shovels, 170
gin stand, 365 Cow-pea thresher, 334
breast or front, 365 Culti-packer land roller, 141
ribs for, 365 Cultivators, 200
roll box, 366 attachments for, 212
saws, 364 axles for, 206
sizes of, 364 balancing frame, 206
types of, 363 beams for, 207
ginning charges, 376 beet and bean, 221
lint flues, 367 comparison of horse and tractor types,
motes, 367 217
rate of feeding, 363 disk, 204
removal of lint from saws, 366 draft of, 222
air blast, 366 ""~
• duty of, 201, 214, 217
brush, 366 forecarriage for, 215
seed scales, 375 gang controls, 210
~ types of gins, 356 \ combination, 211
roller, 357 , direct foot, 210
saw, 357 parallel shift, 211
Cotton harvesters, 305 pivot axle, 211
pickers, 305 seat guide, 210
combined mechanical and vacuum, gangs, 207
307 garden, 301
mechanical, 307 .hitches for, 211
vacuum,. 306 ~:
levers for, 206, 207
strippers or sleds, 308 objects of cultivating, 200
cost of harvesting with, 310 seats for, 206
factors affecting efficiency of, 310
shields and fenders for, 212
Cotton planters, 159
shovels and sweeps for, 210
attachments for, 171
clutch for, 162 trips, 210
covering shovels for, 170 types of, 200
draft of, 173 disk,204
duty of, 173 field, 222
dropping devices for, 162 lister, 218
cell, 162 shovel,204
picker wheel, 164 Bubsoil, 224
Cu.ltivators, types of, tractor, 215 Disk plows, blades for, center of resist-
four row, 217 ance,88
two row, 21.5 draft of, 106
two-row horse drawn, 213 troubles of, 113
wheels for, 205 types of, 77
Cut-off, for corn planters, 150 gang, 180
for cotton planters, 162 one-way, 82
Cutters, silage, 390 orchard,82
Cutting mechan~sm for binders, 270, 294 reversible, 80
Cylinder, threshing machine, 325 tractor, 81
uses of, 77, 87
D weights for, 87, 11~
width of cut, 115
Dead furrow, 56 . Draft, of binders, 290
Density of bales, of cotton, 369 of cultivators, 222
of hay, 263 of disk harrows, 138
Depth of plowing, 117 of grain drill, 195
Design, definition of, 43 of mowers, 247
of plows, 84 of planters, 158, 173
disk,87 of plows, 101
moldboard, 84 disk, 106, 177 IJ
Diggers, beet, 316 effect on, of attachments, 106
peanut, 315 of character of soil, 102
potato, 311 of depth of plowing, 101
sweet potato, 315 of grade, 106
Disk harrow, 127 of hitch, 103
bearings for, 129 of moisture, 102
bumpers for, 130 of other factors, 106
center depth regulator, 131 of previous treatment of soil, 102
disks for, 128 of rigidity of plow, 104
double action, 134 of shape of moldboard, 103
draft of, 137 of smoothness of surface, 102
dutyof,138 of speed, 104
forecarriage, 132 of width of furrow, 101
frame, 129 moldboard, 101 ..
gangs, 129 of wagons, 421
angling of, 132 Drags, 144
horse types; 134, 1~7 Driers for cotton, 376·
lubrication, 130 Drills, grain, 184
pffset types, 136 Dusting machinery~ 225
orchard, 134 agitators for, 229
power angling devices., 136 airplane, 229
reversible, 134 fan, 229
scr!l.pers for, 130 hand, 225
single action, 128 saddle gun, 226
soll penetration, 133 horse drawn, 226
transportation, 133 ground driven, 226
uses of, 127 power cart, 228
weights for, 130 orchard, 229
Di'<k plows, 77 tractor, 228
blades for, 78, 88 Duty, of airplane dusters, 230
,Jlgle of, 78 of binders, 291, 299
INDEX 453 •
Duty, of combined harvester-thresher, Fertilizer distributors, attachments, for

347 row planters, one-row \valking,
of corn pickers, 304 161, 407 '
of cultivators, 201, 204, 217 potato, 180, 411
of disk harrows, 138 tractor, 173,410
of mowers, 249 broadcast sowers, 413
of planters, 173 cultivator attachments, 212, 412
of plows, disk, 82, 115 feeds for, 414
moldboard, 105, 114, 117 grain-drill attachment, 193, 411
placement of fertilizer, 405
types, 406
Force, 5
Electrical power, 30 Forecarriage, for cultivators, 215
Elements of a machine, 30-41 for disk harrows, 132
End..gate lime spreader, 414 for grain binders, 282, 292
End-gate seeder, 197 for mowers, 247
Ensilage cutters, 387 for planters, 171
Evener construction, 92 Fresno, 439
]I' .' Friction, definition of, 11

remedy for, 11
rolling, 11
Fanning mill, 429 Furrow, definitions of, 56
Farm wagon, 420 back, 56
Feed grinders, 377 crown, 56
burr, 377 dead,56
bagging attachment for, 380 face, 56
breaking and cutting rolls, 379 openers, 155, 169, 189
capacity of, 380 sole, 156
combination/grinder and roughage
cutter, 383
capacity of, 385
fineness of grinding, 378 Gage wheels, 62, 156, 161
plates for, 377 Gang_ plows, disk, 80, 113
safety devices, 379 moldboard, 69, 72, 112
hammer, 380 Gangs for harrows, 129
advantages, 381 Garden cultivators, 201
bagging attachment for, 383 Gears, 28
capacity of, 382 bell, 28
grinding process, 382 bevel, 28, 34
hammers on, 381 helical, 28, 34, 35
screens on, 381 pinion, 34
Fertilizer attachments, for bean and spur, 28, 34
beet planters, 182 worm, 28, 34
for corn planters, 157, 409 Georgia stock, 66
for cotton planters, 171,407,410 Graders and cleaners, 429
for cultivators, 212, 412 Grain binders, 267 r~
for grain drills, 185, 193, 411 auxiliary power for, 287
for potato planters, 180, 411 binder attachment on, 276
Fertilizer distributors, 405 parts of, 277, 281
attachIp.ents, for row planters, 407 troubles of, 284
bean and beet, 410 bundle carrier, 282
check row, 157, 409 butt adjuster, 276
Grain binders, care of, 290 Grain drills, wheels for, 184
cutter-bar, parts, 271 Grain header, 291
deck,275 Grain-shock sweep rake, 333
draft of. 290 Grain thresher, 319
duty of, 291 capacity, 332
eievators, 273 cleaning apparatus on, 327
frame, 268 chaffer, 328
hitches, 287 chaffer extension, 328
knotters, 279 fan, 328
troubles of, 285 screens, 328
platform, 272 shoe, 328
reel, 271 sieves, 328
rice type, 289 tailings auger, 328
seventh roller, 275 cost of operating, 332
shafts, 268 fire in, 331
countershaft, 268 functions of, 319
crank shaft, 269 grain handler, 328
sickle, 270 weigher on, 328
size and tightness of bundles, 281 recleaner'on, 331
tractor binders, 289 self-feeder, 321
troubles, 283 band-cutter knives on, 322
trucks, 282 governors, 322
tongue, 282 separating apparatus, 326
transport, 282 beater, 326
twine tension, 280 check board, 326
wheels, 267 grain pan or c~veyor, 327
grain, 272 grates, 326
main, 267 straw racks, 326
Grain drills, 184 setting of, 331
adjusting seeding rate of, 187 size of, 330
alfalfa, 195 straw stacker, 329
attachments for, 193 threshing apparatus, 323
fertilizer, 193 cylinder bearings, 326
grass, 193 cylinder and concave <teeth, 325
boot, 189 Grass-seed attachment, 193
calibration of, 190 Grease cups, 12
covering deviccs, 190 kinds of, 12
draft of, 195 Grinders, feed, 377
duty of, 198 Guards, binder, 271 •
frame for, 184 mower, 242
furrow openers, 189
lifts for, 193
grain feeds, 186
fluted 'wheel, 186 Hammer feed grinder, 380
internal double run, 187 Hand atomizer, 231
hitches, 193 p Hand dusters, 226
land measure for, 190 Hand planters, corn, 145 •
one-horse type, 193 Hand seeders, 196
preSS wheels, 190 Harrow attachments for plows, 61
seed box, 185 Harrow cart, 124
seed tubes, 187 Harrows, 122
sizes of, 190 acme, 127
INDEX
Harrows, disk, 127 Hay rakes, sweep, tractor type, 255

double action, 128 Hay stackers, 258
single action, 134 cable, 260
spike tooth, 122 combination, 260
open and closed, 123 derrick, 260
riding attachments for, 124 overshot, 258
rigid and flexible, 124 swinging, 259
teeth for, 123 tripod, 260
spring tooth, 125 Hay tedders, 251
horse, 125 Heat treatment of steel, 18
teeth for, 126 Hill drop, 165
tractor, 126 Hitch, for binders, 287
orchard, 126 for cultivators, 211
Harvester-thresher, 336 for grain drill, 193
Harvesters, beet, 316 for manure spreader, 404
corn, 292, 300 for plow, 89
cotton, 305 horizontal adjustment of, 91
grain, 267 line of, 89
pea, 316 mUltiple horse, 94
peanut, 315 tractor plow, 99
potato, 311 vertical adjustment of, 90
soybean, 316 trailer, 427, 428
Hay forks, 266 Hoe, rotary, 224
grapple, 266 Homemade land rollers, 142
harpoon, 266 Husker-shredder, 354
sling, 266 operation of, 354
Hay harvesting machinery, 237 size of, 354
barn equipment, 265
loaders, 255 <to!> I
mowers, 237
pick-up balers, 263
Inclined plane, 9
presses, 261
Influence of friction, on design, 86
racks, 257
on speed, 86
rakes, 252
Iron, cast, 15
stackers, 258
chilled, 16
tedders, 251
malleable, 16,
Hay loaders, 255
wrought, 16
combination, 257
cylinder, 256
fork, 255 1
gleaning cylinder for, 257
HaJ{ presses, 261 Jockey arch, 213
capacity of, 262 Jointers, plow, 58
horse, 261 setting of, 60
pick-up, 263 Judging plowing, 84
power, 261
sizes of, 262 K
Hay rakes, 252
dump, 252 Keys, 38
Bide delivery, 252 Knapsack broadcaster, 197
sweep, 254 Knapsack sprayer, 232
hor)3e type, 254 I{nife grinder, mower, 248
Manure spreaders, box, 401

brake for, 403
Lacing belts, 22 conveyor or aprons on, 398
Land roilers, 139 lime-spreader attachinent, 403
kinds of, 139 loading of, 404
cast iron, 140 mechanical loaders for, 404
culti-packer, 141 size and capacity of, 403
hopemade, 142 straw spreader for, 403
concrete, 142 tractor hitch for, 404
log, 142 trucks for, 403
mower wheel, 142 widespread device, 400
subsurface, 143 Materials of construction, 15
tube, 140 Mechanics, 5 .
Laying out fields for plowing, 118 Middlebreaker, 65
Lever, 6 Moldboard plows, 47
classes of, 6 accessories for, 57
Life of plows, 117 bottom and parts, 47
Lime spreader, 403 design of, 84
Line of hitch, 89 types of, 63
Line shafting, 26 Motor trucks, 423
Lister cultivators, 218 cost of operation, 424
Lister planters, 174, 178 types of, 423
loose ground, 178 Mowers, 237
one-row four wheel, 175 aligning cutter bar, 243
one-row two wheel, 174 attachments fo1,"245
one-row walking, 174 bearings lor, 241
one-row wide tread, 177 clutch, 2·10
tractor, 178 crank shaft and wheel, 240
three row, 178 cutter bar, 242· •
two row, 178 Bermuda, 247
Lister plows, 70, 74 lespedeza, 247
l .. og land roller, 142 lifts for, 244
..ubricants, 12 weed and brush, 246
forms, 12 draft of, 247
\
use of, 12 duty of, 249
..ubrication, of disk harrows, 130 frame for, 239.
high pressure, 13 gea.rs, 239
remedy for friction, 1 i grass board, 243
guards, 242
ledger plates, 242
pitman, 241
Machinery, reduces labor, 1 r~gistration o,f knife, 244
reduces production costs, 2 si!ie drr.ft in, 248
with rul,ber tires, 2 sizes of, 241
for terraced fields, 3
t<">~gue truck for, 247
Machines, for future, 3
tra'ctor types, 249
simple, 6
trailer mower, 251
special, for crops, 2, 3
Malleable cast iron, 15 troubles of, 2.47
Manure spreaders, 397 wearing plates, 242
beaters for, 399 wheels for, 237
drlv~s, : .... Mower-wheel land roller, 142
, 400
I
INDEX 457
N Plow bottom, wing bearing in, 51
Plow design, 84
Nozzles, Bordeaux, 234 Plow hitches, 89
vermorel, 234, horizontal adjustment of, 91
Nuts, types of, 39 line of, 89
multiple ~ype, 94
o side draft in, 89
tractor, 99
Oat kicker, 431 vertical adjustment of, 90
Objects, of cultivation, 200 Plow shares, 49
of plowing, 47 cast iron, 49
One-way disk plow, 82 plain steel, 50
Orchard cultivator, 223 repointing of, 51
disk plow, 82 sharpening of, 50
duster, 229 soft-center steel, 50
harrow, 126 suction in, 49
sprayer, 233 treating edge with stellite, 51
Plowing, cost of, 117
depth of, 116
duty of, 117
Pawl, 37 fields, 118
Pea harvester, 316 judging of, 84
Peanut diggers, 315 objects of, 47
Peanut pickers, 334 rate of, '104, 106
Peanut thresher, 333 • speed of, 86, 104
Pickers, corn, 300 terraced fields, 119
cotton, 305 troubles in, 108
,. Planters, beet and bean, 182
corn, 145 ~..
Plows, disk, gang, 80
one way, 82
cotton, 159 orchard; 82
lister, 174 reversible, 80
peanut, 172 special types, 82
potato, 178 sulky, 77
Plates for planters, 148, 162 tractor, 81
Plow accessories, 57 moldboard, 47
beam, 57 basin or damming lister, 75
clevis, 58 chisel, 73
coulters and jointers, 58 gang, horse type, 69
gage wheels, 162 high-lift sulky (frame), 68
handles, 57 hillside, 64
trash shields, 62 low-liLt sulky (frameless), 67
weed hooks, 62 middlebreaker, or lister, 65, 70, 74
Plow bottom, 48
subsoil, 64, 74
frog, 48
tractor, 72
horizontal suction in, 53
landside, 53 two-way, 69, 76
moldboard, construction of, 54 vineyard, 66
shape of, 53 types, 63
types of, 53 Potato diggers, 311
share, kinds of, 49 attachments on, 315
size of, 56 baggers for, 315
vertical suction in, 52 sweet potato, 315
Potato diggers, types, 311 Screws, wood, 41

riding-horse drawn, 312 Seed plates, 148, 162
tractor, 312 Seeders, broadcast, 196
walking-horse drawn, 311 end-gate, 197
Potato planters, 178 knapsack, 197
fertilizer attachments for, 180 wheelbarrow, 199
one-man type, 178 Selection of farm machinery, 42
two-man type, 179 adaptability, 44
two-row tractor, 181 design, 43
Power, 5 ease of operation, 44
Power transmission, 19 new devices, 45
belts, 19 repairs, 43
electricity, 30 trade mark,' 42
gears, 28 trade name, 42 1"
sprocket and chain, 27 where to buy, 45
triangles, 29 workmanship, 44
universal points, 29 Setting of coulters and jointers, 60
Pulley, block and tackle, 7 Shellers, corn, 350
differential, 8 Silage cutters, 387
Pulleys, 24 blower pipe, 394
kinds, cast iron, 25 capacity and power requirements of,
Rockwood, 25 388, 395, 396
solid, 25 cutting mechanism, 390
split, 25 cylinder, 390
split hub, 26 flywheel, 391
knife adjustment, 392
R sharpening knives, 394
shear plate, 391
~tchet and pawl, 37 feeding apparatus, 388 ..
'Rate of plowing, 106 apron for, 388
Recleaners on combines, 343 control of, 390
threshers, 331 corn chute for, 388
Repairs, ordering of, 43 distributor pipe, 394
Reversible-disk harrows, 134 length of cut, 389
Reversible-disk plows, 80 _rolls for, 388
Rice binder, 289 sizes of, 388
Riding planters, 146, 16! types of, 387'
Rod weeder, 224 Silage harvester, 396
Rotary hoe, 224 Simple machines, 6
Roughage gri~ders, 383 Single-disk harr()ws, 128
'Row marker, 157 Sleds, corn, 300
Rubber tires on farm machines, 1 cotton, 309
Slip scraper, 439
S Soft-center steel, 17
Solder, 18
Scouring of plows, 109, 112, 113 " Sorghum header, 318
Screw~ 9 Soybean ha.rvester, 316
Screws, cap, 40 Speed of plowing, 104
jack, 9 Spike-tooth harrow, 122
lag, 40 cart for, 124
machine, 40 open and closed, 123
'Setscrew, types of, 39 riding attachments for, 124
INDEX 459
Spike-tooth harrow, teeth for, 123 Terracing machinery, V-drags and
uses of, 122 graders, 439
Sprayers, 231 whirlwind grader, 445
barrel,232 Threshers, cowpea, 334
bucket, 232 grain, 319
compressed air, 233 peanut, 333
hand,231 velvet bean, 335
knapsack, 232 Tractor cultivators, 215
power, 233 Tractor harrows, 135
nozzles for, 234 Tractor hitches, 99, 193, 211, 287, 404
stationary, 234 Tractor manure spreader, 404
Spreaders, manure, 397 Tractor mowers, 249
straw, 344 Tractor planters, 154, 172
Spring-tooth harrow, 125 Tractor plows, 72, 81
horse, 125 Tractor sweep rakes, 254
teeth for, 126 Trade mark, 42
tractor, 126 Trade name, 42
orchard, 126 Trailers, 424
uses of, 125 four wheel, 427
Springs, types of, 41 hitches for, 428
Sprockets, 27 one wheel, 424
Stackers, hay, 258 two wheel, 425
Stalk cutters, 120 hitchcs for, 427
horse drawn, 120 Transmission of power, 19
tractor drawn, 121 Transplanter, 183
Stationary spray plants, 234 Triangles, 29
Steel, 16 Trucks, motor, 423
case-hardened, 17 Tube land roller, 140
cas"t, 17 1/",) Two-way plows, 69, 76
heat treatment of, 18
soft center, 17 u
structural, 17
Stellite, use of, 51 Uneven furrow crown, 112
Straw spreaders, 334 Unit cotton cleaner, 374
Strippers, cotton, "308 Universal joints, 29
Subsurface land rollers, 143 Unloading hay, 265
Suction in plow, 49, 52 Unterraced fields, plowing of, 118"
Sulky plow, 67 Uses of disk plows, 87
Sweep rakes, 254
V .", ..
T
V-belts,21
Tedders, hay, 251 V-drags, homemade, 439
Terracin"g machinery, 438 steel, 439, 440
cost of operation, 445 -VaculIIll cotton picker, 306
elevating grader, 443 Valves for corn planters, 151
four-wheel terracer, 443 Variable- depth attachment, 166
fresno, 439 Variable drop, 150
plows, 438 Velvet-bean thresher, 335
slip sQraper, 439 Verniorel spray nozzle, 234
three-"\vheel grader, 439 Vertical adjustment of plow hitches, 90
two-wheel terracer, 441 Vineyard plow, 66
Weights for disk harrows, laU

plows, 87, 113
Wagons, 420 Wheel and axle, 7
draft of, 421 Wheelbarrow broadcast seeder, 199
farm truck, 420 Widespread device on manure spreader,
farm wagon, 420 400
selection of, 420 Windrow pick-up, 263
Walking planters, 145, 160 combines, 345
Washers, kinds of, 41 hay balers, 263
quick repair, 40 Windrowing attachment for mowers, 246
Wedge, 10 Wire, check, 152
Weed attachment for mowers, 245 vVood, uses of, 15
Weed and brush bars for mowers, 246 Wood bushings, 33
Weed hooks, 62 Wood screw, 41
Weed screen, 343 Work,5
Weeder-mulchers, 139 Wrought iron, 16

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Farm Machinery and Equipment

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McGRAW-HILL PUBLICATION'S IN

FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

All rights reserved. This book, or

John Bean Manufacturing Co.; Messinger Manufacturing Co.; Niagara

I. FARM MACHINERY AND ITs RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 1

FARM MACHINERY AND ITS RELATION TO AGRICULTURE

• 1 U. S. Dept; Agr., Misc. Rept. 157, p. 2, 1933.

consumed by the tractor, vibration and dust, ,and make transportation

Numerous other questions may be cited but these are sufficient to

have a mechanical advantage of any value, depending directly upon the

FIG. l.-The three classes of levers. FIG. 2.-Wheel and axle.

FIG. 3.-B1ock and tackle. FIG. -i.-

The differential pulley (Fig. 4) is a modificatiqn of a block and tackle

BD - . BC, which will cause pulley G to be raised half this amount. P,

elevation H. Briefly, it is equal to the length over the height, varying

17. The Screw.-The screw (Fig. 7) is the

applied force moves through a distance equal to the circumference

A Strong pressed steel handle

average 80-acre tractor farm. 1 These fittings are distributed on the

Tractor .................... . 20 Ensilage cutter ............ . 25

1 Stewart-1Varner Corporation, Alemite Division.

The process of making malleable cast iron consists of melting the

33. Soft-center Steel.-8oft-center steel consists of three layers of

FIG. H.-Soft-centered steel. FIG. 15.-Case-hardened steel often passed

surface which is very hard. The objection to this type of soft-center

37. Bronze.-Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. However, zinc is,

HEAT TImATMENTS OF MATERIALS

Heat treatment is a term used when heating and .cooling processes,

FIG. l6.-Different kinds of belting:

40. Belts.-Whenever it'is necessary to transmit power some distance

42. Leather Belting.-Leather belti~g should be used only under the

1 The Leather Belting Exchange.

FIG. 17.-Cross-sections of two makes of V-belts.

is a cheap belt and is used where rough handling is expected. It is not

FIG. 1S.-Effect on tension of V -belts by pivoted and fixed motors.

• in the same manner as an ordinary lamp wick. It is made in various

3. Keep all belts free from dirt and moisture.

52. Care of Belts.-The United States Department of Agriculture,

FIG. 24.-Variable-speed Imlley.

FIG. 25.-Line shaft showing hangers, tight and loose pulleys.

bolts to prevent turning on the shafts. Often a key or a setscrew is

FIG. 27.-Pressed-steel hook chain.

The center of the pulley face is generally slightly larger in diameter

apart. The size of the cold-rolled shafting to be used can be determined

TYPE A 1 YPE B TYPE C TYPE 0

Often there is a combination of either spur or bevel or other type.

FIG. 36.-Transmission of power by triangles.

is attached extending to the opposite end of the other cross-arm, causing

FIG. 38.-SoEd bearing. FlG. 39.-Plain Or split bearing.

lighting purposes and nIDning electrical motors to accomplish many types

FIG. 40.-Types of ball bearings: A, double-row; B , single-l'ow; C, single-row, with ring

FIG. 41.-Parts of plain roller bearing.

FIG. 43.-Application of Timkin taper roller bearing.

gives a much longer bearing surface which is necessary for a heavy

FIG. 45.- Wood bushings for FIG. 46.-

62. Heating of Bearings.- Much loss of time often results from

Wood, being a cheap material, is often used in lining bearings where

FIG. 47. -InternaI spur gear. FIG. 48.-ExternaI spur gear.

Babbitt is an alloy of tin, copper, and antimony. This metal is also

FIG. 49.-Rack-and-pinion spur gear.

Fw. 5l.-Miter gears. FIG. 52 .-\Yorm and gear.

FIG. 53.- FIG. 54.-Cross-section of friction clutch.

are two different types of clutches in use on farm machinery; namely,