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Article history:
Received 21 December 2010
Accepted 2 July 2011
Available online 13 July 2011
In re-tube boilers, the ue gas passes inside boiler tubes, and heat is transferred to water on the shell
side. A dynamic model has been developed for the analysis of boiler performance, and Matlab has been
applied for integrating it. The mathematical model developed is based on the rst principles of mass,
energy and momentum conservations. In the model, the two parts of the boiler (re/gas and water/steam
sides), the economizer, the superheater and the heat recovery are considered. The model developed can
capture the dynamics of the boiler level and boiler pressure with condence, and it is adequate to
approach the boiler performance and, hence, to design and test a control strategy for such boilers.
Furthermore, it gives insight of dynamics performance not only during nominal operating conditions, or
transient behavior when a parameter is changed, but also for the start-up. The model proposed can be
easily implemented and thus, it is useful to assist plant engineers and even for training future operators.
A case study of an 800 HP re-tube boiler burning fuel-oil has been simulated to test the boiler
performance by varying operating conditions using a pulse and a step change in fuel and steam ow-rate
as well as simulating a start-up form the beginning up to achieve the steady state. The results match
qualitatively well when compared to results from the literature.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Fire-tube boiler
Modeling
Simulation
Heat transfer
Steam
Fuel
1. Introduction
The design of re-tube boilers consists of a bundle of re tubes
contained in a shell and the evaporating process takes place outside
the re tubes generating steam. Fire-tube boilers are often characterized by their number of passes, referring to the number of
times that the ue gas ows along the length of the pressure vessel
transferring heat to the water. Each pass sends the ue gas through
the tubes in the opposite direction. To make another pass, the gas
turns 180 and passes back through the shell. The turnaround zones
can be either dry-back or water-back. In dry-back designs, the
turnaround area is refractory lined. In water-back designs, this
turnaround zone is water-cooled, eliminating the need for the
refractory lining. Their characteristically large water capacity
makes them somewhat slow in coming up to operating pressure
and temperature but, on the other hand, the large amount of heat
stored in the water provides some accumulator action that makes it
possible to meet load changes quickly.
There are several re-tube boiler designs such as the horizontal
return tubular boiler (HRT), which is encased in a brickwork setting
to contain the ame, so it was an externally red boiler and also
3464
Fig. 1. Basic gas ow patterns of a re-tube (a) two-pass; (b) three-pass; (c) four-pass.
basically made of a round steel drum or shell. Both ends of the shell
are closed by at plates called tube sheets. The combustion of the
fuel takes place in a furnace and the hot gases travel from the furnace
through the re tubes to the chimney. The water in the boiler shell
surrounds the re tubes. The gases travel through the boiler in one
direction only and for this reason, this boiler can also be classed as
a single-pass boiler. Vertical re-tube boilers have an advantage
when oor space is limited as they occupy only a small area.
Some recent papers have been published regarding with other
aspects of re-tube boilers [1,2]. Thus, effects of the addition of
solid surface on carbon monoxide (CO) emission reduction have
been investigated in a combustion chamber of a three-pass re tube
water heater [1] and optimization of re tube heat recovery steam
generators through genetic algorithm has been carried out by
moving variables toward reducing the operational costs of the
HRSG, reducing thus the heat loss.
Dynamic modeling and simulation are becoming increasingly
important in engineering to analyze the unsteady operation of
complex systems [3]. Several studies of modeling the boiler evaporation system can be found in the literature, especially for watertube boilers [4e7], but barely for re-tube boilers. In this work, the
modeling of the heat transfer between ue gas and water in a retube boiler is considered. In the literature, a comprehensive
modeling for re-tube boilers has not been treated. Generally, the
few models found are focused to one aspect of the re-tube boiler
performance as the gas/re side or the water/steam side, and
normally centered on nominal operating conditions. However,
a simulator must include the gas/re side and the water/steam side
performance as well as both the nominal operation and the startup/shut-down of the re-tube boiler.
CFD models are a powerful tool to model very complicated
systems such as for instance turbulent diffusion ames. CFD
algebraic equations are required leading to an overall DAE mathematical system that is very complex to solve. Additionally, some
non-linearities arise when modeling heat transfer mechanism such
as radiation or even convection coupled with empirical correlations. Temperature, pressure and ow-rate of participating uids
are normally the independent variables. Besides, some restrictions
and interlocks should be taken into account to operate the boiler in
a safe way. Therefore, the real problem is very difcult to solve even
numerically. Hence, a comprehensive model is proposed and after
simplied to reduce the complexity and the computational time,
but providing reasonable results.
The model is based on the mass, energy and momentum
balances together with constitutional equations. Two parts are
distinguished in re-tube boilers: the re/gas side, integrated by
the combustion chamber as well as by the successive gas passes
(through the tube banks), and the water/steam side, which
contents liquid water evaporating in the lower zone and saturated
vapor or steam in the upper zone, from which it is continuously
withdrawing to the points of use through a control valve.
In order to evaluate the energy usage of the boiler, the reaction
chamber has been divided in different zones (slices) as shown in
Fig. 3, with all the fuel and the air being fed into the rst zone. The
reaction chamber is modeled as a series of continuous stirred tank
reactors, and the main reactions that take place into the chamber
occur in a very fast way. The wall tubes have been also discretized
into slices in the direction of gas ow to facilitate the calculations of
the heat transfer. Fig. 4 shows the heat transfer phenomena that
occur in the boiler: transfer by radiation and convection between the
combustion gases and wall tubes, conduction through wall tubes to
water, transfer by convection from tubes to liquidewater vapor
mixture in the different passes. The gas phase is considered an ideal
gas, and the conduction in this phase is neglected. Heat transfer from
3465
Fig. 4. Schematic heat transfer phenomena occurring within a re-tube boiler (under
the water or phase-).
the gas to the combustion chamber wall is calculated by both radiation and convection. The axial component of radiation can be
reasonably neglected since it is relatively small compared to the
radial component. All quantities are the same in a cross section of the
tube, i.e., no uid pressure and temperature gradients occur in the
radial and circumferential directions. Finally, since hydrodynamics
changes are much faster than thermal or gas composition changes,
the hydrodynamics will be solved as a steady state problem.
3466
3. Model development
_ air m
_ g ; Vg VF V
_ fuel m
m
d i
_ ik;in m
_ ik;out m
_ ik;cons m
_ ik;gen
m m
dt k
_ ki1 m
_ ik m
_ ik;cons m
_ ik;gen 0
m
(1)
x
Y 1 exp 4:6
LF
(2)
(3)
i1
i
exp 4:6
NF
NF
(4)
d
i1
i
_ fuel LHV exp 4:6
rg;H VCv;g;F Tg;F
m
dt
NF
i
i1
i
_ g C p;g;F Tg;F
m
Tg;F
exp 4:6
NF
q_ irad;F q_ iconv;F
(5)
where
q_ iconv;F hc;F
2pRint;F LF i
Tg;F Twall;F ;
NF
hc;F 0:023
q_ irad;F
NF T i
X
kg;F
g;F
Re0:8 Pr0:4 ; T g;F
2Rint;F
N
i1 F
(6)
3wall;F 3g;F
2pRint;F LF
i 4
s
Tg;F
Twall;F 4
3g;F 3wall;F 3wall;F 3g;F
NF
2pRint;F LF 3wall;F 1
i 4
s
3g;F Tg;F
z
Twall;F 4
NF
2
(7)
gases with C/H weight ratio between 3.5 and 5.0 the data were
correlated by either of two correlations:
r
LHV
3 0:20
900
(8)
p
3 0:048 MWfuel
p
(10)
where C/H is the weight ratio of carbon to hydrogen for the fuel.
Thus, the emissivity related to ames of hydrogen, natural gas,
gas oil and residual fuel-oil are 0.17, 0.21, 0.61 and 0.85, respectively.
This simplied approach allows to avoid the addition of more
coefcients to calculate a weighted overall emissivity of ame, in
case of accounting for any kind of ame related to a given fuel.
For the other gas passes (second and so on) through a given tube
bank, j (j 2, 3 and 4), a number of tubes, nt,j, has to be considered:
_g
m
1 d
i
Vj Cv;g;j rg;j Tg;j
(11)
Each tube of any pass (from the second pass of gas) may be also
discretized in Nj slices
q_ iconv;j hc;j
2pRint;j Lj i
Tg;j Twall;j ;
Nj
hc;j 0:023
q_ irad;j
Nj T i
X
kg;j
g;j
Re0:8 Pr0:4 ; T g;j
2Rint;j
N
i1 j
2pRint;j Lj 3wall;j 1
i
4
s
3g;j Tg;j
4 Twall;j
2
Nj
d
mt;j Cp;tj Twall;j
dt
q_ j;water
(9)
(12)
(13)
3467
nt;j
Nj
X
q_ irad;j
q_ iconv;j
!
q_ j;water
(18)
i1
2pnt;j Rext;j Lj
!
Twall;j Twater
Rext;j
Rext;j
1
ln
kt;j
Rint;j
hc;water
(19)
"
# "
#
Pin;g;j
vin;g;j 2
Pout;g;j
vout;g;j 2
zin
zout
hfr;j
rg;j g
rg;j g
2g
2g
hfr;j Hburner Hfan
(14)
(15)
cj
mt;F Cp;tF
T
dt wall;F
NF
X
q_ irad;F q_ iconv;F q_ F;water
!
(16)
i1
where
q_ F;water
2pRext;F LF
!
Twall;F Twater
Rext;F
Rext;F
1
ln
kt;F
Rint;F
hc;water
(17)
Fig. 5. Cross section view of a re-tube boiler. Water/steam side (the reetubes are
not shown).
3468
larger than those for simple natural convection to the liquid), the
Cooper pool boiling correlation [17] may be used for calculating
the nucleate pool boiling heat transfer coefcient, although the
model does not consider the two phases clearly dened under
water. By taking a surface roughness of the boiling surface of
1 mm, and applying to water, it results the following correlation
to be used:
hnb 12:96p0:12
0:4343lnpr 0:55 Q =A0:67
r
(20)
Mass balance :
"
#
R3 R2 l 3Rl2 l3
2
p
Al Ly R
L f0 l
2
2Rl l2
dl
df0 l
dV
dV dl
f1 l
; f l
dt
dt
dl dt
dt 1
d
d
d
_
_
r V
r m
r f1 l
l f0 l
v mv
dt
dt
dt
r
K P P KVS C s f x
P Psum r
(26)
where Cs and fs(x) are a conversion factor of units and the inherent
characteristic for the steam control valve, respectively. From
Equations (25) and (26), it results:
du
_
_
_
_
(27)
m
v h mv h mv u mv u
dt
2
3
_
m
v C p T l C v T l
6
0
17
7
d
1 6
6
7
r
l
C
T
T
6
7
B
C
p
s s
dt
C7
P Psum r B
m C v 6
4 KVS C f x
@
A5
Cv T l
2
3
v
u
u
t P Psum 7
1 6
6_
7
mv C p T C v T KVS C s f s xP
7
6
4
5
r
m C
(28)
where it has been made an approach for the last term as
T C p C v yP =r . As l z l:
6
d
1
6
K P P C p T C v T
T
4
dt
r f0 l C v v
3
u
u P Psum
7
t
7
KVS C s f s xP
5
r
(29)
d
d
d
d
r V
r V V r
m
dt
dt
dt
dt
_
_
m
v mv
p
2
3
2Rl l2
R2 6Rl 3l2
L
6
7
f1 l 2 4
2 R l 5
2Rl l
R3 R2 l 3Rl2 l3 p
2Rl l2
(24)
d
d
d
r V u
r V
r V u u
Energy balance :
dt
dt
dt
_
_
h
m
h
(25)
m
v
v
(21)
(22)
(23)
d
d
d
_ f m
_ pm
_
r V
r V V r m
v
dt
dt
dt
P P T
(30)
d
1
T
dt
r Vtotal f0 l C v
3
2
u T
_ p h
_ f hp;f Tf u T m
T
m
l
6
7
2;3;4
4
5
P
u T
K P P h
q_ j;water
v T
j1
(31)
x
v
m
v
const: data
m
(32)
r
1
; v 1 x
v vl xv vv
v
(33)
; h
h 1 x
v hl xv hv ; hl hl T
v hv T
; u
u 1 x
v ul xv uv ; ul ul T
v uv T
(34)
(35)
3469
The combustion chamber wall is exposed to very high temperatures. However, the metal temperature at steady-state condition is
close to the steam temperature [18]. In any case, it is convenient to
carry out an energy balance applied to the tubes of combustion
chamber and the different gas passes, as follows:
0
1
X
d
CTM T wall @Q_ g/w
q_ j;water A
dt
j
X
q_ j;water
Rext;t
kt
4. Simplied model
Aeq
T wall Twater
Rext;t
1
ln
Rext;t e
hc;water
xT wall Twater
The solution of the model equations is very difcult due to nonlinearities and the DAE nature of the model. Thus, the model will be
simplied to numerically solve it, including the boiler start-up,
without consuming a long time. Once started the boiler and achieved the nominal operating conditions (steady state), the process
must be kept under control in order to provide the demanded vapor
at the set pressure. The static model (without storage terms) allows
to obtain the nominal conditions, by specifying nominal inputs.
These conditions must be matched with those achieved at the end
of the start-up of the boiler. The simulation of the reduced model
has been built by Matlab software.
4.1. Fire/gas side
The thermal capacity effect of the combustion gas is neglected
taking into account the rapid chemical combustion process with
heat generation rate and a fast heat transfer process, in such a way
that the values of these two terms are quite higher than the energy
storage rate due to the thermal capacity effect of the combustion
gas. Therefore, temperature changes are assumed to take place
instantaneously for the ue gas.
Mass balance
_ fuel m
_ air m
_ g ; Vg VH V const:
Combustion chamber : m
(36)
_ g const:
Gas pass through a given tube bank; jj 2; 3 y 4: m
(37)
Energy balance: Heat released to the water
2
2p4Rext;H ,LH
Aeq
4
X
(42)
3
nt;j Rext;j Lj 5
(38)
_ fuel LHV
Heat release : Q_ g/w hm
(39)
Dynamics
(43)
j2
CTM
d
CTM d
T
Q_ g/w xT wall Twater 0
T
x dt wall
dt wall
Q_ g/w
T wall Twater
(44)
d
_
_
_
_
m m
v mv 00mv mv
dt
_ fuel LHV
Maximum available : m
(41)
(45)
V A
Ly2RLl
l
4 p 2
dV dV dl
dl
R L/
2RL
2
dt
dl dt
dt
(46)
that is very exact if the water level is not far from the middle of the
shell.
The changes in energy of the water and metal are the physical
phenomena that dominate the dynamics of the boiler [6]. For the
metal, it will be used an average thermal capacitance dened as
CTM
2;3;4
X
j1
(40)
d
d
_ f m
_ p m
_
_
_
_
r V zr V m
v mf mp mv
dt
dt
(47)
3470
Vtotal V V
dV
dV
const:0
dt
dt
(48)
2RLr
p
d
_ f m
_ p KVS C s f s x P Psum rV
l m
dt
(49)
p
P Psum rV KVS C s f s xF0 T
(50)
Fuel-oil characteristicsa:
Carbon, % w (C): 86.6
Hydrogen, % w (H): 10.9
Sulfur, % w (S): 2.1
Ash, % w: 0.4
LHV, MJ/kg: 39.4
Theoretical air/fuel ratio (A/F):
mair
11:45 C 34:33 H 4:29 Skgair =kgfuel
A=Ft
mfuel
_
_ fuel
mair t;dry A=Ft m
!
RH%=100$Pv Tamb $MH2 O
_ aire t;dry $ 1
_ air t;wet m
m
Pamb Pv $Mdry air
By considering the air excess (AE):
A=Freal AE A=Ft kgaire =kgfuel
_ air real;wet
m
kgair;real
AE
_ air t;wet
kgaire;t
m
!
RH%=100$Pv Tamb $MH2 O
Pamb Pv $Mdry air
Oxygen concentration in the ue gases to the chimney (dry-basis):
nO2
100
O2 %voldry basis
nN2 ng;s nO2
_ fuel , 1
_ air real;wet AE A=Ft m
m
(51)
3
s f s xF Tl
_
T
C
T
K
C
m
VS
0
6 f p;f f
7
d
1
6 2;3;4
7
Ty
6 P
7
5
dt
rVtotal C v 4
q_ j;water Heat Losses
Table 2
Additional data and expressions for the re/gas side.
(52)
j1
basis
nO2
100
nN2 ng;s nO2 nH2 O
RH%=100 Pv Tamb
Pamb Pv
Table 1
Main losses considered by means of efciencies.
Combustion gases to the chimney:
This loss is accounted for the losses of the gases owing through the chimney.
By radiation and convection, given by a coefcient a that is a function of the load
_ fuel LHV):
and the size of the boiler (% of m
_ fuel $LHV; a aboiler; load
Prc a$m
where % load is the % rate of ring, Thus, representing load e energy loss,a for
a boiler of 800 HP:
25e1.2%; 50e0.6%; 75e0.4%; and 100e0.3%
Or by applying the Spanish standard UNE-EN 12953-11:2004, these losses can
0:6
be accounted by Prc 0:0072 Q_ E , where Q_ E is the estimated useful
_ fuel LHV
thermal power, in MW, i.e., h m
Although there is other kind of losses, those above cited are the most representative
ones.
a
www.boilerspec.com/EmmisEfc/boiler%5fefciency%5ffacts.pdf.
3471
Table 3
Additional data and expressions for the water/steam side.
P exp
"
T 99:63
12:7
T 273
374 T
339:6
!2:174 #!
; P in bar and T in C
hc;water 12 ah1 $2:18$T 25 ah2 $175 98:33$T 100 ah3 $hnb kJ=h$m2 $ C
ah1 1 if 25 T 100 C; ah1 0 for another T
+ If
+ If
+ If
+ If
d
d
m b1 mair mv
dt
dt
_
_
_
m
v 1 b1 $b2 $mv b1 $1 b2 mair;p
_
If b1 1 and b2 0 start up0m
v 0; 0
(53)
(54)
and
where Cair and fair (x) are a conversion factor of units and the
inherent characteristic for the air venting valve, respectively.
Likewise, Equation (50) is used for the steam, with a constraint for
Psum : P Psum 0.
The above expressions allow to obtain the mass ow-rates
through the air venting valve and the steam control valve. The
logic sequence implies that rst b1 must be 1 and b2 must be 0, and
nally, once the boiler is providing steam to consumers, b1 must be
0 and b2 must be 1. Thus,
d
_
_
_
m m
v b2 $mv b1 $mair;p
dt
b2 0;
d
_ air;p
m m
dt air
with mair t 0
(55)
V M
Pair
air
Rg Tt 0
Pamb V Mair
d
_
_
_
mv m
v mv mv
dt
_
m
v
(60)
V MH2 O d
V MH2 O d
Pv T=T
F T
Rg
Rg
dt
dt 2
V MH2 O dF2 T dT
dT dt
Rg
61
d
d
_ f m
_ pm
_
r V zr V m
v
dt
dt
Rg Tt 0
_ air;p 0
If b1 0 and b2 0start up0maire 0; m
(59)
d
mv
dt
_
_
_
m
v mv mv ;
_
m
v 0;
p
P Patm ra
p
air air air
KVS C f x Pv T Pair T Pamb rair
v
!
u
u
mair Rg T
mair
air air air
t
Pamb
P T
KVS C f x
Mair V
V
(62)
(56)
(57)
d
_
_
If b2 1 and b1 0start up/nom 0 m m
v mv
dt
_
_
00m
v mv
(58)
dV
dV
d
0 2RLr l
dt
dt
dt
V MH2 O dF2 T dT
_ f m
_p
m
$
$
dT
dt
Rg
(63)
3472
Table 4
Additional elements in a re-tube boiler system.
Component
Economizer
Superheater
Equations
_ g C p;g;EC Tin;g;EC Tout;g;EC Qwall;EC
m
dTt;EC
_ g C p g;EC Tin;g;EC Tin;g;EC Q
Qwall Q m
mt;EC C p t;EC
dt
_
mf C p water;EC Tout;water;EC Tin;water;EC Q PdEC
PdEC 0 except changes due to a disturb
_ f in kg=h
_ f0:8 Twall;EC Twater ; estimating kc;water 2; m
Q kc;water m
rin rout
Tin Toutl
C; r
for the gas
T
2
2
_ fuel LHV Qwall ; j 1; .; 4
hSH m
dTt;SH
_ fuel LHV Q
Qwall Q hSH m
dt
_
mv C p v;SH Tout;SH T Q PdSH
mt;SH C p t;SC
_
_
_ out;ATT m
Attemperator m
v mspray
_
_
_ out;ATT hout m
m
v hout;SH mspray hspray
_
_
_
m
v C p v;SH Tout;SH mspray CP;f Tspray mspray l
Tout;ATT
; or
_
_
m
v mspray $C p v;SH
Comments
In the model, it is assumed that both the gas and the water have
a negligible dynamics from the energy point of view and, when
the operating conditions change, storage terms are for the metal
tube wall that provides the area for heat transfer. The maximum
achievable heating value depends on the minimum chimney
temperature, which should be higher than the acid dew point.
mt;EC C p t;EC
is estimated to be 500 kJ/ C, in this case. The equation for Q (heat
transferred from metal walls to water) is taken from Refs. [21,27,28].
In case of only using a superheater, a set of equations similar to that
used for economizer would reduce the problem. The superheater is
normally located in the upper part of the furnace, where the
temperatures are still quite high. It is a single-phase heat exchanger
with steam owing inside the tubes and ue gas passing outside. It
can be approached by a fraction of the heat release in furnace.
mt;SC C p t;SH is estimated to be 2300 kJ/ C in this case. The equation
for Q (heat transferred from metal walls to steam) is taken from
Refs. [21,27,28]. Storage term in the ow equation is neglected.
Clearly, the maximum achievable heating value depends on the
enthalpy difference of the combustion gas stream.
This option is not as common in re-tube boilers as they are in
water-tube boilers.
The attemperation carried out by a water spray is a method to
control the temperature for superheated steam, by atomizing liquid
water that is evaporated inside. The water spray is modulated by
a suitable valve. Because the attemperator has a relatively small
volume, the mass and heat storages inside that are negligible.
The value for Cpv,SH is evaluated at the average temperature
between Tout,SC (at the attemperator inlet) and Tout,ATT (at the
attemperator outlet).
The spray is liquid water at temperature of feeding water, which is
atomized and evaporated to obtain a wished superheated steam
temperature. The sprayed water ow-rate will be the manipulated
variable in order to control a wished outlet temperature for the steam.
Blowdown
heat
recovery
Stage 1
Simple ash
_ V;flash m
_ L;flash
_p m
Mass balance : m
_ p $hp m
_ V;flash $hV;flash m
_ L;flash $hL;flash Pdflash
Energy balance : m
Pdflash 0 except change due to a disturb
_ V;flash
m
C p;L Tp Tflash
Blowdown
heat
recovery
Stage 2
The liquid water from the ash separator may be used for
preheating the water feeding by a heat exchanger before going
into the degasier. In this case, it will be assumed that the
dynamics of the heat exchanger walls can be neglected.
The operation may be set so as to have a temperature of water
discharge from the ash stage of 5 C more than that of the water
input, which is an input variable. Heat losses have been expressed
as a fraction of the enthalpy difference for the heat uid through
the factor, fPdIC, which is a conguration parameter (input data of
the model).
Tmakeup;out Tmakeup;in
Degasier
_ makeup m
_ cond m
_ V;flash
m
collected from those points in which saturated steam has been
_f
_ makeup m
m
used, the make-up water and the steam coming from the ash
PdDEG z0
separator. The outlet streams are the removed gases (neglected in
the energy balance) and the feed water of the boiler. No heat
losses to the ambient have been assumed. Although the model
does not include the condensed vapor unit, it can be assigned
a value of condensed water ow-rate as a function of the feed
water of the boiler. Condensed water is collected in a tank and
from this it ows to the degasier. As an approach, it may be
assumed that condensed water has a temperature around 10
e15 C less than operating temperature inside the boiler.
_ cond m
_ V;flash m
_ f m
_ gases;deg
_ makeup m
m
_ cond $hcond m
_ V;flash $hV;flash m
_ f $hf
_ makeup $hmakeup;out;IC m
m
_ cond $C p:L ,Tcond m
_ V ;flash $C p:V $Tmakeup;out;IC l
_ makeup $C p:L $Tmakeup;out;IC m
m
Tf
_ makeup m
_ cond m
_ V;flash
m
3473
3
2;3;4
P
_ j;water
_ f hf Tf h T
q
m
7
6
j1
4
5
V MH2 O dF2 T
air
air
air
r TV l C v l
KVS C f xF1 mair ; T ha Ta h T
Rg
dT
3
2
2;3;4
X
1 b1 1 b2
4
_ f hf Tf h T
m
q_ j;water 5
V MH2 O dF2 T
1
r TV l C v l
Rg
dT
2
3
4
X
1 b1 b2 4
1
s
s
_ f hf Tf h T
Heat Losses
q_ j;water KVS C f xF0 Tl5
m
rVtotal C v
rVtotal C v
j1
2
d
Ty
dt
b1 1 b2
1=r v 0:001 5:82 109 T 1:93 m3 =kg
So, by rearranging the energy balance equation, it turns out:
(64)
2
3
2;3;4
2
P
_
q_ j;water
1 b2
1 b1 b2 4
6 mf hf Tf h T
7
_ f hf Tf h T
m
j1
4
5
V MH2 O dF2 T
rVtotal C v
air C air f air xF m ; T h T h T
r TV l C v l
b1 KVS
a a
1
air
dT
Rg
3
4
X
1
Heat Losses
(65)
q_ conv;j;water KVS C s f s xF0 Tl5
r
V
total C v
j1
d
Ty
dt
boiler, but nally some references have been taken from the literature so as to contrast the model results.
The overall calculation scheme for the complete model is shown
in Fig. 6. The re-tube boiler model has been simulated using
Matlab. Before running the simulation, all the constants and
parameters such as boiler geometry and conguration including
valves and the possible additional elements, or heating value and
moisture content of the fuel and ambient conditions, are set. The
simulation starts once the boiler is ready and so the fuel and air are
entered as well as the feed water, following the model. When the
convergence is achieved and wished steady state is matched, some
changes can be carried out to get the dynamic behavior of the boiler
while a new steady state may be reached.
In order to validate the performance of the modeling approach,
some running tests are performed under various situations from
a case study. Next, some simulation results will be obtained and
then compared with test results from the literature. As an example
and case study, an 800 HP re-tube boiler has been selected for
testing the model. Table 5 shows the data of the real boiler chosen
for carrying the simulation and Table 6 includes the steady-state
operating conditions of the simulated boiler.
To make possible a comparison with available data the additional elements considered in Table 4 are not taken into account,
and thus only the boiler itself has been simulated: re/gas side and
water/steam side.
3474
Values
Boiler/Steam temperature
Steam pressure
Steam ow-rate
Water level
Water volume
Feed water ow-rate
Water purge
Feed water temperature
Fuel ow-rate (fuel-oil)
Fuel temperature
Oxygen in ue gas
Air ow-rate
Flue-gas ow-rate
Flue gas temp2erature chimney
Ambient conditions:
Temperature
Pressure
Relative humidity
471.0 K
15.0 bar
3600.0 kg/h
2.48 m
17.98 m3
3672.0 kg/h
72.0 kg/h
126.0 C
792.0 kg/h
105.0 C
4.0 %vol
12816.0 Nm3/h (@273 K, 1 atm)
17280.0 kg/h
213.0 C
293 K
1 bar
30%
The open loop transient response of the chosen boiler is simulated when a pulse change is made to one of the two more relevant
factors, but being the oxygen present in the ue gas under control:
the heating rate (fuel ow-rate) and the steam demand (steam owrate).
As aforementioned, the main input variables are fuel, air, feed
water ow-rates and steam valve opening, as well as fuel, air and
feed water temperatures. Reaction of steam pressure, steam owrate, water/steam side temperature and water volume will be
illustrated.
The simulation process rst runs until reaching a steady state.
Then, for some time, the steady state is represented, and at a given
moment, fuel-oil ow-rate or steam valve opening (and, hence,
steam ow-rate) is suddenly increased (by a pulse or step change),
and that value is then maintained for some time. During this time,
output variables are changing. Next, the situation is replaced at its
Fig. 6. Overall calculation scheme of the complete model.
Table 5
Data of an 800 HP re-tube boiler (horizontal packaged four-pass re-tube boiler).
Fire side
Aeq (m2)
325.16
Boiler radius (m)
1.480
Length (m)
6
Max. operating pressure (bar)
20
Max. steam ow-rate (kg/h)
12602
Tg;chim 149:0 4:78$Pboiler
Chimney temperature ( C)
hFS (@1.7 bar) (%)
89.8
hFS % hFS@1;7 bar % Co$O2 out;drybasis 3 0; 027$Tair 25 0; 35$Pboiler 1:7a
where:
[O2]out, dry-basis:0e3% v /Co 0.33
[O2]out, dry-basis:3 y 6% v /Co 0.43
[O2]out, dry-basis:6 y 8% v /Co 0.60
[O2]out, dry-basis:8 y 10% v /Co 1.50
[O2]out, dry-basis:> 10% v /Co 2.00
Tair (inlet) in C, and Pboiler
(operating pressure) in bar.
6503.2
CTM (kJ/ C)
rt (kg/m3)
8000
Cp,t (kJ/(kg C))
kt (kJ/(hm C))
0.5
170
e (mm)
vapor; b
KVS
800
air
KVS
Water side
353.96
5.0
Reference: www.boilerspec.com (many data have been taken from this Web link).
a
Fuel-To-Steam Efciency, hFS, is the fraction of available energy used to generate steam. Between 25 and 100% of the boiler load, the efciency does not change signicantly
(about 0.2%), so hFS will be considered as independent of the boiler load. This efciency is hFS f(fuel, mair,Tamb, boiler, vapor pressure).
b
the maximum pressure drop (for an operating pressure of 21 bar) is 18.2 bar f x x; 0 x 1; x is the valve opening.
3475
856
811
766
676
721
631
586
541
496
451
406
316
361
271
226
181
91
136
46
0,00
time (sec)
Steam flow-rate (g/s)
1400
1200
18
1000
17
800
600
16
15
400
14
200
941
894
800
847
753
706
659
612
565
518
471
time (sec)
time (sec)
480
478
17.95
476
17.90
474
472
17.85
470
17.80
468
time (sec)
Fig. 7. Dynamic behavior of the boiler under a pulse in fuel ow-rate from 0.22 to 0.28 kg/s and back to 0.22 kg/s.
921
875
829
783
737
691
645
599
553
507
461
415
369
323
277
231
185
139
93
47
941
894
847
800
753
706
659
612
565
518
471
424
377
330
236
189
95
142
48
283
time (sec)
17.75
466
1
424
377
330
283
236
189
142
95
1
901
856
811
766
721
676
631
586
541
496
451
406
361
316
271
226
181
91
136
46
48
13
3476
1236
1171
1106
976
1041
846
911
781
716
651
586
521
456
391
326
261
196
131
66
26,0
time (sec)
Steam flow-rate (g/s)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1274
1341
1207
1140
1073
939
872
738
1006
1321
1255
1189
1123
1057
991
925
859
793
727
595
time (sec)
661
529
463
397
331
265
199
133
1341
1274
1207
1140
1073
1006
939
872
805
738
671
604
17.900
537
17.920
466
470
17.940
467
403
17.960
468
336
17.980
469
269
18.000
470
202
471
135
18.020
67
472
805
time (sec)
time (sec)
68
671
604
537
470
403
336
269
202
135
68
1301
1236
1171
1106
1041
976
911
846
781
716
651
586
521
391
456
326
261
196
131
66
15.2
15.0
14.8
14.6
14.4
14.2
14.0
13.8
13.6
time (sec)
Fig. 8. Dynamic behavior of the boiler under a pulse in steam valve opening from 29.2 to 34.3% and back to 29.2%.
2721
2585
2449
2313
2177
2041
1905
1769
1633
1497
1361
1225
1089
953
817
681
545
409
273
137
0,21
time (sec)
Steam pressure (bar)
22
1600
20
1400
18
1200
16
time (sec)
time (sec)
Temperature boiler (K)
490
485
480
475
470
465
2361
2243
2125
2007
1889
1771
1653
1535
1299
1417
1181
1063
945
827
709
591
473
355
237
119
460
time (sec)
Fig. 9. Dynamic behavior of the boiler under a step in fuel ow-rate from 0.22 to 0.28 kg/s.
2281
2167
2053
1939
1825
1711
1597
1483
1369
1255
1141
1027
913
685
799
571
457
343
229
2321
2205
2089
1973
1857
1741
1625
1509
1393
1277
1161
1045
929
813
697
581
465
349
233
600
1
800
10
117
12
115
1000
14
3477
2006
1702
1798
1606
1510
1398
1302
1206
998
1094
902
790
694
598
502
390
294
198
time (sec)
Steam pressure (bar)
20
15
10
time (sec)
1974
1894
1798
1718
1622
1542
1446
1366
1270
1174
1094
902
998
822
726
646
550
454
374
198
2006
1894
1798
1702
1606
1510
1398
1302
1206
998
1094
902
790
694
598
502
390
294
198
278
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
time (sec)
Air flow-rate (Nm 3/h)
20000
15000
10000
5000
1974
1894
1798
1622
1718
1542
1446
1366
1270
1174
1094
998
902
822
726
646
550
454
374
278
198
time (sec)
Fig. 10. Dynamic behavior of the boiler during the start-up initiated at t 0.
blown with air, so the air ow-rate rstly increases when ame is
established in boiler, for a fuel ow-rate of 0.22 kg/s, but then it
always goes down progressively in order to get an oxygen
concentration of about 4 %vol. The results for the start-up simulation are close to those shown by Krger et al. [26].
6. Conclusions
A complete dynamic model of a full-scale re-tube boiler has
been developed based on the mass, energy, and momentum
balances together with constitutional equations. Two parts are
distinguished in re-tube boilers: the re/gas side and the water/
steam side. A rst nonlinear physical model has been presented and
after reduced to shorten the computational time, but providing
reasonable results. The boiler start-up has been also taken into
account. Thus, it may allow to simulate the process as well as to
design a multivariable controller. Simulation is useful both for
training and assisting in on-line decisions. A case study has been
simulated using an 800 HP re-tube boiler and dynamic performances predicted by the model are in good qualitative agreement
with data taken from the literature.
The proposed modeling may be used as an effective way of
undertaking a comparison between the re-tube boiler performances when running with different fuels, especially when
considering the ring of a new fuel in given equipment. Another
application may be the tests facilities used in research projects
dealing with oxy-combustion process, since the model may be
easily adapted to those operating conditions. Anyway, continued
efforts are required to improve the model and to provide verication using more experimental data.
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Nomenclature
A: transfer surface (m2)
A/F)t: air/fuel stoichiometric ratio (kg/kg)
A/F)real: air/fuel real ratio (kg/kg)
C: carbon content (weight fraction)
Cp: specic heat at constant pressure (kJ/(kg C))
Cv: specic heat at constant volume (kJ/(kg C))
CTM: global specic heat of the metal section (combustion chamber and tubes) (J/ C)
e: average wall thickness of metal tube (m)
AE: air excess (fraction)
f(x): inherent characteristic of the control valve (linear: f(x) : x)
fc: condensed water fraction recycled (fraction)
RH(%): relative humidity in the inlet air (%)
h: specic enthalpy (kJ/kg)
hc;water : average convective heat transfer coefcient of the liquid water (kJ/(m2 C s))
Hburner: energy supplied by the burner fan to balance the mechanical energy loss (m)
Hfan: energy supplied by the ue-gas fan to balance the mechanical energy loss (m)
kt : average thermal conductivity of the metal (kJ/(m C s))
KVS: ow coefcient of the control valve
LHV: lower heat value (MJ/kg: 103 kJ/kg)
l: boiler height (horizontal cylinder) (m)